The great English physicist, mathematician and astronomer. Author of the fundamental work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” (lat. Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica), in which he described the law universal gravity and the so-called Newton's Laws, which laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Developed differential and integral calculus, color theory and many other mathematical and physical theories.
Isaac Newton, the son of a small but prosperous farmer, was born in the village of Woolsthorpe (Lincolnshire), in the year of Galileo's death and on the eve of civil war. Newton's father did not live to see his son born. The boy was born sickly, prematurely, but still survived and lived for 84 years. Newton considered the fact of being born on Christmas a special sign of fate.
The boy's patron was his maternal uncle, William Ayscough. After graduating from school (1661), Newton entered Trinity College (College of the Holy Trinity) at the University of Cambridge. Even then, his powerful character took shape - scientific meticulousness, the desire to get to the bottom of things, intolerance to deception and oppression, indifference to public fame. As a child, Newton, according to contemporaries, was withdrawn and isolated, loved to read and make technical toys: a clock, a mill, etc.
Apparently, the scientific support and inspiration for Newton's work were the physicists: Galileo, Descartes and Kepler. Newton completed their work by combining universal system peace. Other mathematicians and physicists had a lesser but significant influence: Euclid, Fermat, Huygens, Mercator, Wallis. Of course, the enormous influence of his immediate teacher Barrow cannot be underestimated.
It seems that Newton made a significant part of his mathematical discoveries while still a student, during the “plague years” of 1664-1666. At the age of 23, he was already fluent in the methods of differential and integral calculus, including series expansion of functions and what was later called the Newton-Leibniz formula. At the same time, according to him, he discovered the law of universal gravitation, or rather, he became convinced that this law follows from Kepler’s third law. In addition, during these years Newton proved that white color is a mixture of colors, derived the formula of “Newton’s binomial” for an arbitrary rational exponent (including negative ones), etc.
1667: The plague subsides and Newton returns to Cambridge. Elected a fellow of Trinity College, and in 1668 he became a master.
In 1669, Newton was elected professor of mathematics, Barrow's successor. Barrow sends Newton's essay "Analysis by Equations with infinite number members,” containing a condensed summary of some of his most important discoveries in the analysis. It gained some fame in England and abroad. Newton is preparing a complete version of this work, but is still unable to find a publisher. It was published only in 1711.
Experiments in optics and color theory continue. Newton studies spherical and chromatic aberration. To reduce them to a minimum, he builds a mixed reflecting telescope (lens and concave spherical mirror, which he polishes himself). He is seriously interested in alchemy and conducts a lot of chemical experiments.
1672: Demonstration of the reflector in London - universally rave reviews. Newton becomes famous and is elected a member of the Royal Society (British Academy of Sciences). Later, improved reflectors of this design became the main tools of astronomers, with their help other galaxies, red shifts, etc. were discovered.
A controversy breaks out over the nature of light with Hooke, Huygens and others. Newton makes a vow for the future: not to get involved in scientific disputes.
1680: Newton receives a letter from Hooke with the formulation of the law of universal gravitation, which, according to the former, served as the reason for his work on determining planetary motions (though then postponed for some time), which formed the subject of the Principia. Subsequently, Newton, for some reason, perhaps suspecting Hooke of illegally borrowing some earlier results of Newton himself, does not want to recognize any of Hooke’s merits here, but then agrees to do so, although rather reluctantly and not completely.
1684-1686: work on “Mathematical principles of natural philosophy” (the entire three-volume work was published in 1687). The Cartesians gained worldwide fame and fierce criticism: the law of universal gravitation introduces long-range action that is incompatible with the principles of Descartes.
1696: By royal decree, Newton was appointed Warden of the Mint (from 1699 - Director). He vigorously pursues monetary reform, restoring confidence in the British monetary system, which had been thoroughly neglected by his predecessors.
1699: the beginning of an open priority dispute with Leibniz, in which even the reigning persons were involved. This absurd quarrel between two geniuses cost science dearly - the English mathematical school soon withered for a whole century, and the European school ignored many of Newton’s outstanding ideas, rediscovering them much later. On the continent, Newton was accused of stealing the results of Hooke, Leibniz and the astronomer Flamsteed, as well as of heresy. Even the death of Leibniz (1716) did not extinguish the conflict.
1703: Newton is elected president of the Royal Society, which he rules for twenty years.
1705: Queen Anne knights Newton. From now on he is Sir Isaac Newton. For the first time in English history The title of knight was awarded for scientific merits.
Recent years Newton devoted his life to writing the Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, which he worked on for about 40 years, and preparing the third edition of the Elements.
In 1725, Newton's health began to deteriorate noticeably (stone disease), and he moved to Kensington near London, where he died at night, in his sleep, on March 20 (31), 1727.
The inscription on his grave reads:
Here lies Sir Isaac Newton, the nobleman who, with an almost divine mind, was the first to prove with the torch of mathematics the motion of the planets, the paths of comets, and the tides of the oceans.
He investigated the difference between light rays and the resulting various properties flowers, which no one had previously suspected. A diligent, wise and faithful interpreter of nature, antiquity and Holy Scripture, he affirmed with his philosophy the greatness of Almighty God, and with his disposition he expressed evangelical simplicity.
Let mortals rejoice that such an adornment of the human race existed.
Named after Newton:
craters on the Moon and Mars;
SI unit of force.
The statue erected to Newton in 1755 at Trinity College is inscribed with verses from Lucretius:
Qui genus humanum ingenio superavit (He was superior to the human race in intelligence)
Scientific activities
Associated with Newton's work new era in physics and mathematics. Powerful analytical methods appear in mathematics, and there is a surge in the development of analysis and mathematical physics. In physics, the main method of studying nature is the construction of adequate mathematical models of natural processes and intensive research of these models with the systematic use of the full power of the new mathematical apparatus. Subsequent centuries have proven the exceptional fruitfulness of this approach.
According to A. Einstein, “Newton was the first who tried to formulate elementary laws, which determine the time course of a wide class of processes in nature with high degree completeness and accuracy" and "... had with his works a deep and strong influence on the entire worldview as a whole."
Mathematical analysis
Newton developed differential and integral calculus simultaneously with G. Leibniz (a little earlier) and independently of him.
Before Newton, operations with infinitesimals were not linked into a unified theory and had the character of isolated ingenious techniques (see Method of Indivisibles), at least there was no published systematic formulation and the power of analytical techniques for solving such problems was not sufficiently revealed. complex tasks, as problems of celestial mechanics in their entirety. Creation mathematical analysis reduces the solution of relevant problems, to a large extent, to the technical level. A complex of concepts, operations and symbols appeared, which became the starting point further development mathematics. The next century, the 18th century, was a century of rapid and extremely successful development of analytical methods.
Apparently, Newton came to the idea of analysis through difference methods, which he studied extensively and deeply. True, in his “Principles” Newton almost did not use infinitesimals, adhering to ancient (geometric) methods of proof, but in other works he used them freely.
The starting point for differential and integral calculus were the works of Cavalieri and especially Fermat, who already knew how (for algebraic curves) to draw tangents, find extrema, inflection points and curvature of a curve, and calculate the area of its segment. Among other predecessors, Newton himself named Wallis, Barrow and the Scottish astronomer James Gregory. There was no concept of a function yet; he interpreted all curves kinematically as trajectories of a moving point.
Already as a student, Newton realized that differentiation and integration are mutual reverse operations(apparently, the first published work containing this result in the form of a detailed analysis of the duality of the area problem and the tangent problem belongs to Newton's teacher Barrow).
For almost 30 years Newton did not bother to publish his version of the analysis, although in letters (in particular to Leibniz) he willingly shared much of what he had achieved. Meanwhile, Leibniz's version had been spreading widely and openly throughout Europe since 1676. Only in 1693 did the first presentation of Newton's version appear - in the form of an appendix to Wallis's Treatise on Algebra. We have to admit that Newton’s terminology and symbolism are rather clumsy compared to Leibniz’s: fluxion (derivative), fluenta (antiderivative), moment of magnitude (differential), etc. Only Newton’s notation “o” for an infinitesimal dt has been preserved in mathematics (however , this letter was used earlier by Gregory in the same sense), and even a dot above the letter as a symbol of the derivative with respect to time.
Newton published a fairly complete statement of the principles of analysis only in the work “On the Quadrature of Curves” (1704), an appendix to his monograph “Optics”. Almost all of the material presented was ready back in the 1670-1680s, but only now Gregory and Halley persuaded Newton to publish the work, which, 40 years late, became Newton’s first printed work on analysis. Here, Newton introduced derivatives of higher orders, found the values of the integrals of various rational and irrational functions, and gave examples of solutions differential equations 1st order.
1711: "Analysis by Equations with an Infinite Number of Terms" is finally published, after 40 years. Newton explores both algebraic and “mechanical” curves (cycloid, quadratrix) with equal ease. Partial derivatives appear, but for some reason there is no rule for differentiating fractions and complex function, although Newton knew them; however, Leibniz had already published them at that time.
In the same year, “The Method of Differences” was published, where Newton proposed an interpolation formula for drawing through (n + 1) given points with equally spaced or unequally spaced abscissas of a parabolic curve of the nth order. This is a difference analogue of Taylor's formula.
1736: The final work, “The Method of Fluxions and Infinite Series,” is published posthumously, significantly advanced compared to “Analysis by Equations.” Numerous examples are given of finding extrema, tangents and normals, calculating radii and centers of curvature in Cartesian and polar coordinates, finding inflection points, etc. In the same work, quadratures and straightenings of various curves were performed.
It should be noted that Newton not only developed the analysis quite fully, but also made an attempt to strictly substantiate its principles. If Leibniz was inclined to the idea of actual infinitesimals, then Newton proposed (in the Principia) a general theory of passage to limits, which he somewhat floridly called the “method of first and last relations.” The modern term “limes” is used, although there is no clear description of the essence of this term, implying an intuitive understanding.
The theory of limits is set out in 11 lemmas in Book I of the Elements; one lemma is also in book II. There is no arithmetic of limits, there is no proof of the uniqueness of the limit, and its connection with infinitesimals has not been revealed. However, Newton rightly points out the greater rigor of this approach compared to the “rough” method of indivisibles.
Nevertheless, in Book II, by introducing moments (differentials), Newton again confuses the matter, in fact considering them as actual infinitesimals.
Other mathematical achievements
Newton made his first mathematical discoveries back in his student years: the classification of algebraic curves of the 3rd order (curves of the 2nd order were studied by Fermat) and the binomial expansion of an arbitrary (not necessarily integer) degree, from which Newton’s theory of infinite series began - a new and powerful tool of analysis . Newton considered series expansion to be the main and general method of analyzing functions, and in this matter he reached the heights of mastery. He used series to calculate tables, solve equations (including differential ones), and study the behavior of functions. Newton was able to obtain expansions for all the functions that were standard at that time.
In 1707, the book “Universal Arithmetic” was published. It presents a variety of numerical methods.
Newton always paid great attention to the approximate solution of equations. Newton's famous method made it possible to find the roots of equations with previously unimaginable speed and accuracy (published in Wallis' Algebra, 1685). Modern look Newton's iterative method was introduced by Joseph Raphson (1690).
It is noteworthy that Newton was not at all interested in number theory. Apparently, physics was much closer to mathematics to him.
Theory of gravity
The very idea of the universal force of gravity was repeatedly expressed before Newton. Previously, Epicurus, Kepler, Descartes, Huygens, Hooke and others thought about it. Kepler believed that gravity is inversely proportional to the distance to the Sun and extends only in the ecliptic plane; Descartes considered it the result of vortices in the ether. There were, however, guesses with the correct formula (Bulliald, Wren, Hooke), and even quite seriously substantiated (using the correlation of Huygens' formula for centrifugal force and Kepler's third law for circular orbits). But before Newton, no one was able to clearly and mathematically conclusively connect the law of gravity (a force inversely proportional to the square of the distance) and the laws of planetary motion (Kepler's laws).
It is important to note that Newton did not simply publish a proposed formula for the law of universal gravitation, but actually proposed a complete mathematical model in the context of a well-developed, complete, explicit and systematic approach to mechanics:
law of gravitation;
law of motion (Newton's 2nd law);
system of methods for mathematical research(mathematical analysis).
Taken together, this triad is sufficient for a complete study of the most complex movements. celestial bodies, thereby creating the foundations of celestial mechanics. Before Einstein, no fundamental amendments to this model were needed, although the mathematical apparatus was very significantly developed.
Newton's theory of gravity sparked many years of debate and criticism of the concept of action at a distance.
The first argument in favor of the Newtonian model was the rigorous derivation of Kepler's empirical laws on its basis. The next step was the theory of the movement of comets and the Moon, set out in the “Principles”. Later, with the help of Newtonian gravity, all observed movements of celestial bodies were explained with high accuracy; This is a great merit of Clairaut and Laplace.
The first observable corrections to Newton's theory in astronomy (explained by general relativity) were discovered only more than 200 years later (shift of the perihelion of Mercury). However, they are also very small within the solar system.
Newton also discovered the cause of tides: the gravity of the Moon (even Galileo considered tides to be a centrifugal effect). Moreover, having processed many years of data on the height of tides, he calculated the mass of the Moon with good accuracy.
Another consequence of gravity was the precession of the earth's axis. Newton found out that due to the oblateness of the Earth at the poles, the earth's axis undergoes a constant slow displacement with a period of 26,000 years under the influence of the attraction of the Moon and the Sun. Thus, the ancient problem of “anticipation of the equinoxes” (first noted by Hipparchus) found a scientific explanation.
Optics and theory of light
Newton made fundamental discoveries in optics. He built the first mirror telescope (reflector), in which, unlike purely lens telescopes, there was no chromatic aberration. He also discovered the dispersion of light and showed that white light is decomposed into the colors of the rainbow due to the different refraction of rays of different colors when passing through a prism, and laid the foundations for the correct theory of colors.
During this period there were many speculative theories of light and color; mainly fought against Aristotle's point of view (" different colors is a mixture of light and darkness in different proportions") and Descartes ("different colors are created when light particles rotate with at different speeds"). Hooke, in his Micrographia (1665), proposed a variant of Aristotelian views. Many believed that color is an attribute not of light, but of an illuminated object. The general discord was aggravated by a cascade of discoveries in the 17th century: diffraction (1665, Grimaldi), interference (1665, Hooke), double refraction (1670, Erasmus Bartholin, studied by Huygens), estimation of the speed of light (1675, Roemer), significant improvements in telescopes. There was no theory of light compatible with all these facts.
In his speech to the Royal Society, Newton refuted both Aristotle and Descartes, and convincingly proved that white light is not primary, but consists of colored components with different angles of refraction. These components are primary - Newton could not change their color with any tricks. Thus, the subjective sensation of color received a solid objective basis - the refractive index.
Newton created mathematical theory interference rings discovered by Hooke, which have since been called “Newton’s Rings”.
In 1689, Newton stopped research in the field of optics - according to a widespread legend, he vowed not to publish anything in this area during the life of Hooke, who constantly pestered Newton with criticism that was painful for the latter. In any case, in 1704, the next year after Hooke’s death, the monograph “Optics” was published. During the author’s lifetime, “Optics,” like “Principles,” went through three editions and many translations.
Book one of the monograph contained principles geometric optics, the study of light dispersion and composition white with various applications.
Book two: interference of light in thin plates.
Book three: diffraction and polarization of light. Newton explained polarization during birefringence closer to the truth than Huygens (a supporter of the wave nature of light), although the explanation of the phenomenon itself was unsuccessful, in the spirit of the emission theory of light.
Newton is often considered a proponent of the corpuscular theory of light; in fact, as usual, he “did not invent hypotheses” and readily admitted that light could also be associated with waves in the ether. In his monograph, Newton described in detail the mathematical model of light phenomena, leaving aside the question of the physical carrier of light.
Other works in physics
Newton was the first to derive the speed of sound in a gas, based on the Boyle-Mariotte law.
He predicted the oblateness of the Earth at the poles, approximately 1:230. At the same time, Newton used a homogeneous fluid model to describe the Earth, applied the law of universal gravitation and took into account centrifugal force. At the same time, Huygens performed similar calculations on similar grounds; he considered gravity as if its source was in the center of the planet, since, apparently, he did not believe in the universal nature of the force of gravity, that is, ultimately he did not take into account the gravity of the deformed surface layer of the planet. Accordingly, Huygens predicted a compression less than half that of Newton, 1:576. Moreover, Cassini and other Cartesians argued that the Earth is not compressed, but bulged at the poles like a lemon. Subsequently, although not immediately (the first measurements were inaccurate), direct measurements (Clerot, 1743) confirmed Newton’s correctness; actual compression is 1:298. The reason this value differs from that proposed by Newton in favor of Huygens's is that the model of a homogeneous liquid is still not entirely accurate (density increases noticeably with depth). A more accurate theory, explicitly taking into account the dependence of density on depth, was developed only in the 19th century.
Other works
In parallel with the research that laid the foundation of the current scientific (physical and mathematical) tradition, Newton devoted a lot of time to alchemy, as well as theology. He did not publish any works on alchemy, and the only known result of this long-term hobby was the serious poisoning of Newton in 1691.
It is paradoxical that Newton, who worked for many years at the College of the Holy Trinity, apparently himself did not believe in the Trinity. Researchers of his theological works, such as L. More, believe that Newton's religious views were close to Arianism.
Newton proposed his own version of biblical chronology, leaving behind a significant number of manuscripts on these issues. In addition, he wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse. Newton's theological manuscripts are now kept in Jerusalem, in the National Library.
The Secret Works of Isaac Newton
As is known, shortly before the end of his life, Isaac refuted all the theories put forward by himself and burned the documents that contained the secret of their refutation: some had no doubt that everything was exactly like that, while others believe that such actions would be simply absurd and claim that the archive complete with documents, but only belongs to a select few...
/brief historical perspective/
The greatness of a true scientist is not in the titles and awards with which he is marked or awarded by the world community, and not even in the recognition of his services to Humanity, but in the discoveries and theories that he left to the World. Unique discoveries made during our bright life, the famous scientist Isaac Newton is difficult to overestimate or underestimate.
Theories and discoveries
Isaac Newton formulated the basic laws of classical mechanics, was open law of universal gravitation, theory developed movements of celestial bodies, created fundamentals of celestial mechanics.
Isaac Newton(independently of Gottfried Leibniz) created theory of differential and integral calculus, opened light dispersion, chromatic aberration, studied interference and diffraction, developed corpuscular theory of light, gave a hypothesis that combined corpuscular And wave representations, built mirror telescope.
Space and Time Newton considered absolute.
Historical formulations of Newton's laws of mechanics
Newton's first law
Every body continues to be maintained in a state of rest or uniform and rectilinear motion, until and as long as it is not forced by applied forces to change this state.
Newton's second law
IN inertial system reference, the acceleration that a material point receives is directly proportional to the resultant of all forces applied to it and inversely proportional to its mass.
The change in momentum is proportional to the applied driving force and occurs in the direction of the straight line along which this force acts.
Newton's third law
An action always has an equal and opposite reaction, otherwise the interactions of two bodies on each other are equal and directed in opposite directions.
Some of Newton's contemporaries considered him alchemist. He was the director of the Mint, established the coin business in England, and headed the society Prior-Zion, studied the chronology of ancient kingdoms. He devoted several theological works (mostly unpublished) to the interpretation of biblical prophecies.
Newton's works
– “A New Theory of Light and Colors”, 1672 (communication to the Royal Society)
– “Motion of bodies in orbit” (lat. De Motu Corporum in Gyrum), 1684
– “Mathematical principles of natural philosophy” (lat. Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica), 1687
- “Optics or a treatise on the reflections, refractions, bendings and colors of light” (eng. Opticks or a treatise of the reflections, refractions, inflections and colors of light), 1704
– “On the quadrature of curves” (lat. Tractatus de quadratura curvarum), supplement to "Optics"
– “Enumeration of lines of the third order” (lat. Enumeratio linearum tertii ordinis), supplement to "Optics"
– “Universal arithmetic” (lat. Arithmetica Universalis), 1707
– “Analysis using equations with an infinite number of terms” (lat. De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas), 1711
– “Method of Differences”, 1711
According to scientists around the world, Newton's work was significantly ahead of the general scientific level of his time and was poorly understood by his contemporaries. However, Newton himself said about himself: “ I don’t know how the world perceives me, but to myself I seem to be only a boy playing on the seashore, who amuses himself by occasionally finding a pebble more colorful than the others, or a beautiful shell, while the great ocean of truth spreads out before me. unexplored by me. »
But according to the conviction of no less a great scientist, A. Einstein “ Newton was the first to try to formulate elementary laws that determine the time course of a wide class of processes in nature with a high degree of completeness and accuracy." and “... with his works had a deep and strong influence on the entire worldview as a whole. »
Newton's grave bears the following inscription:
“Here lies Sir Isaac Newton, the nobleman who, with an almost divine mind, was the first to prove with the torch of mathematics the motion of the planets, the paths of comets and the tides of the oceans. He investigated the differences in light rays and the various properties of colors that appeared thereby, which no one had previously suspected. A diligent, wise and faithful interpreter of nature, antiquity and Holy Scripture, he affirmed with his philosophy the greatness of Almighty God, and with his disposition he expressed evangelical simplicity. Let mortals rejoice that such an adornment of the human race existed. »
Prepared Lazarus Model.
One of the first scientists, rightfully recognized as a genius, Isaac Newton made fundamental discoveries in mathematics and established fundamental laws in the fields of astronomy and physics. The newton, the unit of force in the International System of Units, is named after the great scientist.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) was born in East Anglia into the family of a small farmer who died shortly before the birth of his son. The grandmother was involved in raising the future scientist. He attended a local school and then entered Trinity College, Cambridge University. In 1665, Newton received his bachelor's degree, but was forced to remain in the village due to the plague then raging in London. He focused on mathematics and developed the principles of derivatives, which led to differential calculus. In 1667, Newton became a teacher at Trinity College and in 1669 received the position of professor of mathematics. He then became interested in the movement of bodies, wondering what makes them start and stop moving. As a result, Newton's three laws of motion of bodies arose. The effect of these laws can be observed while playing billiards.
The next science to which Newton made a huge contribution was astronomy. According to a common legend, a scientist was sitting in the garden and saw an apple falling. Why did it fall? Newton concluded that the apple was pulled toward the Earth by a force we now call gravity. In addition, he realized that every body behaves as if its mass was concentrated in one place (now called the center of gravity). Using the laws of motion he discovered, Newton concluded that the force of gravity acts on all bodies in the Universe; It is she who makes the Moon revolve around the Earth, and the Earth around the Sun. He derived the formula for the universal law of universal gravitation, according to which the force of attraction between two bodies - two billiard balls and even two stars - is equal to the product of their masses and is inversely proportional to the distance between them.
The English scientist Robert Hooke also derived the law of gravity in 1678 and published his idea a few years later. This led to a great quarrel between the great scientists.
Isaac Newton's "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" is one of the most important scientific books of all time. It expounds fundamental theories in the fields of astronomy, mathematics and physics.
In the branch of physics now called optics, Newton's main works were devoted to the nature of light. Missing a narrow beam sunlight Through a glass prism, Newton split light into a multicolor spectrum, the sequence of colors of which was the same as in the spectrum of the rainbow. He proved that daylight consists of a series of colors. (Today we would say that this light consists of many waves different lengths.) Telescopes of that time produced images surrounded by the color spectrum because the lenses were of poor quality in different places focused different colors. The scientist solved this problem by using mirrors instead of lenses, and in 1668 he built one of the first reflecting telescopes, for which he made the mirrors with his own hands.
Newton was convinced that light was a “stream” of tiny particles (“corpuscles”). This theory was soon questioned by Christiaan Huygens and other scientists who believed that light travels in the form of waves. The debate continued until the 20th century, when physicists finally came to the conclusion that light has the properties of both a particle and a wave; but for this it was necessary to create quantum theory.
In 1703, Newton was elected president of the Royal Society of London, and two years later he was ennobled and showered with honors. The last years of his life he was engaged in the preparation of reprints of “Principles” and “Optics”. Isaac Newton was buried in Westminster Abbey.
According to legend, Newton formulated his law of universal gravitation while sitting in a garden and watching an apple fall.
English physicist Sir Isaac Newton, short biography which is provided here, became famous for his numerous discoveries in the field of physics, mechanics, mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy.
Inspired by the works Galileo Galilei, Rene Descartes, Kepler, Euclid and Wallis, Newton made many important discoveries, laws and inventions, which modern science still relies on.
When and where was Isaac Newton born?
Isaac Newton House
Sir Isaac Newton (Sir Isaac Newton, years of life 1643 - 1727) was born on December 24, 1642 (January 4, 1643 new style) in the country-state of England, Lincolnshire, in the city of Woolsthorpe.
His mother went into labor prematurely and Isaac was born premature. At birth, the boy turned out to be so physically weak that they were afraid to even baptize him: everyone thought that he would die without living even a couple of years.
However, such a “prophecy” did not prevent him from living to old age and becoming a great scientist.
There is an opinion that Newton was Jewish by nationality, but this is not documented. It is known that he belonged to the English aristocracy.
I. Newton's childhood
The boy never saw his father, also named Isaac (Newton Jr. was named after his father - a tribute to memory), - he died before he was born.
The family later had three more children, whom the mother, Anna Ayscough, gave birth to from her second husband. With their appearance, few people were interested in the fate of Isaac: the boy grew up deprived of love, although the family was considered prosperous.
His uncle William on his mother’s side made more efforts in raising and caring for Newton. The boy's childhood can hardly be called happy.
Already in early age Isaac showed scientific talents: he spent a lot of time reading books and loved making things. He was withdrawn and uncommunicative.
Where did Newton study?
In 1655, a 12-year-old boy was sent to school in Grantham. During his training, he lived with a local pharmacist named Clark.
IN educational institution abilities in the field of physics, mathematics, and astronomy appeared, but mother Anna took her son out of school after 4 years.
16-year-old Isaac was supposed to manage the farm, but he didn’t like this arrangement: the young man was more drawn to reading books and inventing.
Thanks to his uncle, schoolmaster Stokes and a teacher from Cambridge University, Isaac was reinstated into the ranks of the school's students to continue his educational activities.
In 1661, the guy entered Trinity College, Cambridge University for free education. In 1664 he passed the exams, which transferred him to the status of a student. From this moment on, the young man continues his studies and receives a scholarship. In 1665 he was forced to quit studying due to the closure of the university for quarantine (plague epidemic).
Around this period he created his first inventions. Afterwards, in 1667, the young man was reinstated as a student and continued to gnaw on the granite of science.
A significant role in Isaac Newton's passion for the exact sciences is played by his mathematics teacher Isaac Barrow.
It is curious that in 1668 the mathematical physicist received the title of master and graduated from the university, and almost immediately began giving lectures to other students.
What did Newton discover?
The scientist's discoveries are used in educational literature: both in school and university, and in a wide variety of disciplines (mathematics, physics, astronomy).
His main ideas were new for that century:
- His most important and significant discoveries were made between 1665 and 1667, during the bubonic plague in London. The University of Cambridge was temporarily closed and its teaching staff disbanded due to the raging infection. The 18-year-old student left for his homeland, where he discovered the law of universal gravitation, and also conducted various experiments with spectral colors and optics.
- His discoveries in mathematics include third-order algebraic curves, binomial expansion, and methods for solving differential equations. Differential and integral calculus were developed almost at the same time as Leibniz, independently of each other.
- In the field of classical mechanics, he created an axiomatic basis, as well as such a science as dynamics.
- It is impossible not to mention the three laws, where their name “Newton’s laws” comes from: the first, second and third.
- The foundation was laid for further research in astronomy, including celestial mechanics.
Philosophical significance of Newton's discoveries
The physicist worked on his discoveries and inventions from both a scientific and religious point of view.
He noted that he wrote his book “Principles” not in order to “belittle the Creator,” but still emphasized his power. The scientist believed that the world was “quite independent.”
He was a supporter of Newtonian philosophy.
Books by Isaac Newton
Newton's published books during his lifetime:
- "Method of differences".
- "Enumeration of lines of third order."
- "Mathematical principles of natural philosophy."
- "Optics or a treatise on the reflections, refractions, bendings and colors of light."
- "A New Theory of Light and Colors."
- "On the quadrature of curves."
- "Motion of bodies in orbit."
- "Universal Arithmetic".
- "Analysis using equations with an infinite number of terms."
- "Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms" .
- "The World System".
- "Method of fluxions ».
- Lectures on optics.
- Notes on the book of the prophet Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John.
- "Brief Chronicle".
- "A Historical Tracing of Two Notable Corruptions of Holy Scripture."
Newton's inventions
He began taking his first steps in invention as a child, as mentioned above.
In 1667, all the university teachers were amazed by the telescope he created, which was invented by the future scientist: it was a breakthrough in the field of optics.
In 1705, the Royal Society awarded Isaac a knighthood for his contributions to science. Now he was called Sir Isaac Newton, he had his own coat of arms and a not very reliable pedigree.
His inventions also include:
- A water clock powered by the rotation of a wooden block, which in turn vibrates from falling drops of water.
- A reflector, which was a telescope with a concave lens. The device gave impetus to research into the night sky. It was also used by sailors for navigation on the high seas.
- Windmill.
- Scooter.
Personal life of Isaac Newton
According to contemporaries, Newton's day began and ended with books: he spent so much time reading them that he often forgot to even eat.
The famous scientist had no personal life at all. Isaac was never married; according to rumors, he even remained a virgin.
When did Sir Isaac Newton die and where is he buried?
Isaac Newton died on March 20 (March 31, 1727 - new style date) in Kensington, UK. Two years before his death, the physicist began to have health problems. He died in his sleep. His grave is in Westminster Abbey.
A few not so popular facts:
- An apple did not fall on Newton's head - this is a myth invented by Voltaire. But the scientist himself really sat under the tree. Now it is a monument.
- As a child, Isaac was very lonely, as he was all his life. Having lost her father early, her mother focused entirely on her new marriage and three new children, who were quickly left without a father.
- At the age of 16, his mother took her son out of school, where he began to show extraordinary abilities at an early age, so that he began managing the farm. School teacher, his uncle and another acquaintance, a member of Cambridge College, insisted on the boy returning to school, from which he successfully graduated and entered the university.
- According to the recollections of classmates and teachers, Isaac spent most of his time reading books, forgetting even to eat and sleep - this was the life he most desired.
- Isaac was the keeper of the British Mint.
- After the death of the scientist, his autobiography was released.
Conclusion
Sir Isaac Newton's contribution to science is truly enormous, and it is quite difficult to underestimate his contribution. His discoveries remain the basis to this day modern science in general, and its laws are studied at school and other educational institutions.
The complete picture of the world created by the great English scientist Isaac Newton still amazes scientists. Newton's merit is that both huge celestial bodies and the smallest grains of sand driven by the wind obey the laws he discovered.
Isaac Newton was born in England on January 4, 1643. At the age of 26 he became a professor of mathematics and physics and taught for 27 years. In the first years of his scientific activity he became interested in optics, where he made many discoveries. He personally made the first mirror telescope, which magnified 40 times (a considerable amount at that time).
Since 1676, Newton began studying mechanics. The scientist outlined the main discoveries in this area in the monumental work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.” “Principles” described everything that was known about the simplest forms of motion of matter. Newton's doctrine of space, mass and force had great importance for the further development of physics. Only the discoveries of the 20th century, especially Einstein, showed the limitations of the laws on which Newton's theory of classical mechanics was built. But despite this, classical mechanics has not lost its practical significance.
Isaac Newton laid down the law of universal gravitation and the three laws of mechanics, which became the basis of classical mechanics. He gave a theory of the movement of celestial bodies, creating the foundations of celestial mechanics. He developed differential and integral calculus, made many discoveries in the science of optics and color theory, developed a number of other mathematical and physical theories. Scientific works Newton was far ahead of the general scientific level of his time, and therefore many of them were poorly understood by his contemporaries. Many of his hypotheses and predictions turned out to be prophetic, for example, the deflection of light in the gravitational field, the phenomenon of polarization of light, the interconversion of light and matter, the hypothesis about the oblateness of the Earth at the poles, etc.
The following words are carved on the grave of the great scientist:
"Here lies
Sir Isaac Newton
Who with the almost divine power of his mind
First explained
Using your own mathematical method
Movements and shapes of the planets,
The paths of comets, the ebb and flow of the ocean.
He was the first to explore the variety of light rays
And the resulting characteristics of colors,
Which until that time no one even suspected.
Diligent, insightful and faithful interpreter
Nature, antiquities and scripture,
He glorified the Almighty Creator in his teaching.
He proved the simplicity required by the Gospel with his life.
Let mortals rejoice that in their midst
Once upon a time there lived such an ornament of the human race.
