Method is a very broad concept, applicable to almost every science and inextricably linked with research. However, he has very precise definition. The history of the development of methods and methodology is divided into two periods, which will be discussed in more detail in this article. In addition, issues of classification and evolution of methods will be addressed.
Terminology
Essentially, the word "method" has two full meanings.
Firstly, a method is a method of theoretical research or practical implementation. This is the meaning it is perceived by scientists. For example, empirical (that is, based on experience) or (from general to specific). It is worth noting that these examples are methods of cognition, which is only one area of methodology.
Secondly, a method is a way of acting in a certain way, an option of action chosen by a particular person/organization, etc. For example, methods of management, control, manipulative methods.
It is also important to note the fact that both meanings correlate with each other: thus, the definitions begin with the word “method”, which is a very general synonym for “method”. Next comes the clarification: the method of what exactly? These are the two important elements that make up a method.
Methodology
Methodology is the doctrine of methods, which represents an integral system of organizational principles, as well as methods of constructing both theoretical and practical activities. IN this definition lies the key to one general definition of the method.
That is, a method is what is used to organize activities. But it is still customary to take as a basis two definitions separated from each other, presented just above, in the previous paragraph.
Tasks and features
The method must be correlated with reality, with those properties and laws that reality carries within itself.
The need for the emergence of methods arises from the task of accumulating and transmitting social experience. The early stages of cultural development already contained the rudiments of methodology. But only when the need to formalize the rules and norms of activity was clarified, it began to be developed in a conscious and purposeful manner.
Historical development of methodology as a science
Methodology for a long time included in the context of natural philosophical and logical ideas. Moreover, it represented philosophical activities. Consequently, first of all, the definition of method as a way of cognition arose.
From this point of view, various philosophers in different times methods were classified in their own way. For example, before the spread of German classical philosophy There were only two types of methods: rationalistic and empiricistic. But the limitations of these directions were subsequently criticized. The nature of the methodology itself also remained unclear: from mechanical to dialectical. After analyzing the structure of the doctrine, Kant identified constitutive and regulative principles. Some categories were studied and presented by Hegel.
However, under the gun of philosophy, methodology could not achieve specifics, remaining a collection of points of view.
Twentieth century: reforming ideas about methodology
In the twentieth century, methodology began to cover a specialized field of knowledge. In addition, she was given a specific direction: internal movement, that is, the mechanisms and logic of knowledge.
Differentiation began to correspond to the methodology.
Classification
The following types of methods are distinguished:
- Universal, which have their own classification. Dialectical and metaphysical methods are known.
- General scientific, the classification of which is based on the levels of knowledge - empirical and theoretical.
- Particular scientific, or specific, tied to specific areas of science in which they are used or from which they originate. In other words, the basis for this type is the use of methods in various fields or the development of methods by these areas. This species has the widest range of examples. So social methods are directly related to sociology and society, and psychological ones are based directly on the laws of psychology.
Methods and techniques
The method differs from the methodology primarily in less specificity. The second is, so to speak, a ready-made algorithm, instructions for action. The same method can be applied in different cases, while the techniques are mostly highly specialized and developed for specific circumstances.
Evolution of methods
The evolution of methods can be easily traced using the example of the Institute of Medicine, and more precisely, diagnostic research.
Modern diagnostics are improving due to the progress and deepening of scientific knowledge. Currently, such devices and devices are provided that were not available at least fifty years ago.
It can be said that on modern methods The invention of mankind, the computer, has been extremely influential. And not only as an implementation of some developments, but also for analyzing data that helps to identify logical connections that were not previously noticed, reform methods, and adjust them to the current realities of life.
The method is universal remedy, reception, essential element any of the areas. Methods progress along with scientific knowledge. The structuring of methodology in the twentieth century contributed to the development becoming extensive.
Fragment of work:
What is a method? How does the research method differ from the teaching method, from the method of solving a school problem?
According to logic scientific research The research methodology is being developed. It is a complex of theoretical and empirical methods, the combination of which makes it possible to most reliably study such a complex and multifunctional object as the educational process. The use of a number of methods allows for a comprehensive study of the problem under study, all its aspects and parameters.
in contrast to methodology, these are the very methods of studying pedagogical phenomena, obtaining scientific information about them in order to establish natural connections, relationships and construct scientific theories. All their diversity can be divided into: methods for studying pedagogical experience, methods of theoretical research and mathematical and statistical methods.
These are ways to study the actual experience of an organization. educational process. Studied as best practice, i.e. experience the best teachers, and the experience of ordinary teachers. Their difficulties often reflect real contradictions pedagogical process, urgent or looming problems. When studying teaching experience, methods such as observation, conversation, interviews, questionnaires, study of written, graphic and creative works students, pedagogical documentation.
The listed methods are also called methods of empirical knowledge of pedagogical phenomena. They serve as a means of collecting scientific and pedagogical facts that are subject to theoretical analysis. That is why a special group is allocated
This is the identification and consideration of individual aspects, signs, features, and properties of pedagogical phenomena. By analyzing individual facts, grouping, systematizing them, we identify the general and special in them, establish general principle or rule. Analysis is accompanied by synthesis; it helps to penetrate into the essence of the pedagogical phenomena being studied.
These are logical methods for summarizing empirically obtained data. The inductive method involves the movement of thought from particular judgments to a general conclusion, the deductive method - from a general judgment to a particular conclusion.
Theoretical methods are necessary to define problems, formulate hypotheses, and evaluate collected facts. Theoretical methods are associated with the study of literature: the works of classics on issues of human science in general and pedagogy in particular; general and special works on pedagogy; historical and pedagogical works and documents; periodical pedagogical press; fiction about school, education, teachers; reference pedagogical literature, textbooks and methodological manuals in pedagogy and related sciences.
Theory(Greek theoría, from theoréo - consider, explore), in a broad sense - a complex of views, ideas, ideas aimed at interpreting and explaining a phenomenon; in a narrower and more specialized sense, it is the highest, most developed form of organization of scientific knowledge, giving a holistic idea of the patterns and existing connections of a certain area of reality - the object of a given technical theory. T. acts as the most perfect form of scientific substantiation and programming of practical activity.
CONCEPT(from Latin conceptio - grasping) is a term of philosophical discourse that expresses either the act of grasping, understanding and comprehending meanings during speech discussion and conflict of interpretations, or their result, presented in a variety of concepts that are not deposited in unambiguous and generally valid forms of concepts. The concept is associated with the development and deployment of personal knowledge, which, unlike theory, does not receive a completed deductive-systemic form of organization and the elements of which are not ideal objects, axioms and concepts, but concepts - stable semantic condensations that arise and function in the process of dialogue and verbal communication . Concepts, acquiring the propositional form of a theory, lose their connection with the correlativity of questions and answers that form a certain complex. Concepts correlate not with objects, but with questions and answers expressed in speech, and the semantic “common voices” recognized by the participants in the dialogue. Each element of the concept correlates not with an object, but with the integrity of personal experience.
METHOD is, in a broad sense, a conscious way of achieving a result, carrying out a certain activity, or solving certain problems. The method presupposes a known sequence of actions based on a clearly understood, articulated and controlled ideal plan in the most various types cognitive and practical activities in society and culture. The degree of this awareness and control of the ideal plan of activity may be different, but one way or another, the implementation of activities based on one or another method, in principle, presupposes a conscious correlation of the methods of action of the subjects of this activity with the real situation, assessment of their effectiveness, critical analysis and selection of various action alternatives and pr
According to Borishpolts, it is a way to achieve a goal, a set of techniques/operations for practical or theoretical knowledge of reality. Associated with the operationalization of theoretical knowledge. Or a conscious way of achieving results, solving assigned tasks.
Methodology- a set of methods and techniques of cognition
According to Kovalchenko, it is a set of rules and procedures, techniques and operations that make it possible to put into practice the ideas and requirements of the principle on which the method is based.
Methodology (from “method” and “logy”) – 1) the doctrine of structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity 2) a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system"
Methodology – 1)This is the doctrine of the organization of activity. 2) the doctrine of the method of cognition and transformation of the world" This definition clearly determines the subject of the methodology - the organization of activities
APPROACH- a complex of paradigmatic, syntagmatic and pragmatic structures and mechanisms in knowledge and/or practice, characterizing competing (or historically replacing each other) strategies and programs in philosophy, science, politics or in the organization of people’s lives and activities. Usually, the analysis of the category of P. is turned to during special periods in the development of a particular activity, when fundamental changes are recorded or problems that cannot be solved by available means arise. In the development of science and scientific activity Kuhn called these periods scientific revolutions. In a broader sense, all science is a special approach to the world, the basic paradigm of which is detailed ideas about nature
Scientific concepts- the most general and important fundamental provisions of theories.
Scientific theory- this is systematized knowledge in its totality. Scientific theories explain many accumulated scientific facts and describe a certain fragment of reality (for example, electrical phenomena, mechanical movement, transformation of substances, evolution of species, etc.) through a system of laws.
The main difference between a theory and a hypothesis is reliability, evidence. The term theory itself has many meanings. Theory in a strictly scientific sense is a system of already confirmed knowledge that comprehensively reveals the structure, functioning and development of the object under study, the relationship of all its elements, aspects and theories.
There are three types of theories.
1. Descriptive theories. Descriptive theories are qualitative in nature. They identify the group of phenomena or objects under study, formulate general patterns based on scientific data, but correction of evidence and logical analysis are not carried out. Such theories include the first theories of electricity and magnetism, Pavlov’s philological theory, Darwin’s theory, and modern psychological theories.
2. Scientific theories. In these theories, an ideal object is constructed using mathematical models to represent and replace the real object. Typically, such theories are based on several axioms and hypotheses. The consequences of the theory are verified experimentally. An example is modern physical theories, which are characterized by logic and strict mathematical apparatus.
3. Deductive theories. In deductive theories, a basic axiom is formulated, and then propositions are added that are deduced from the basic axiom by strict logic. Example: Euclid's Elements.
Methodology– the doctrine of the principles of research, forms and methods scientific knowledge. Methodology determines the general orientation of research, the features of the approach to the object of study, and the method of organizing scientific knowledge.
There are three interconnected hierarchical levels of methodology: philosophical, general scientific and private methodology. Philosophical methodology- most high level. The principles formulated in the history of FF are of decisive importance for it: the law of unity and struggle of opposites, the law of the transition of quantity into quality, the law of the negation of negation, the categories of general, particular and separate, quality and quantity; the principle of the universal connection of phenomena, the principles of contradiction, causality. This also includes the logic of scientific knowledge, which requires compliance with the laws of logic in relation to the phenomenon being studied. General methodological methods of research- analysis and synthesis of the phenomena being studied. Methodological principles of knowledge develop along with science.
Philosophical methodology establishes forms of scientific knowledge based on the disclosure of the interconnections of sciences. Depending on the principles underlying the division, there are various classifications of sciences, of which the most common is their division into physical and mathematical, technical, natural and humanities.
General scientific methodology is a generalization of methods and principles for studying phenomena by various sciences. General scientific methods of research - observation, experiment, modeling, which are of a different nature depending on the specifics of science.
Observation includes the selection of facts, the establishment of their characteristics, the description of the observed phenomenon in verbal or symbolic form (graphs, tables, etc.). Linguistic observation concerns the selection of linguistic phenomena, the isolation of a certain fact from oral or written speech, its correlation with the phenomenon being studied, the definition its properties and features: identifying groups of vocabulary, grammatical properties of a word, etc. This requires a good knowledge of the language by the researcher, and the presence of a so-called etymological sense.
Experiment - This is an experiment carried out under precisely taken into account conditions. In linguistics, experiments are carried out both with the use of instruments and apparatus (experimental phonetics, neurolinguistics) and without them (psycholinguistic tests, questionnaires, etc.).
Modeling – a way of understanding reality, in which objects or processes are studied by constructing and studying their models. A model is understood as any image (image, drawing, diagram, graph, etc.) or device used as a “substitute” for an object or phenomenon. The model is built on the basis of a hypothesis about the structure of the original and is its functional analogue. The concept of a model entered linguistics in the 60s. in connection with the penetration of ideas and methods of cybernetics into it.
Interpretation – a general scientific method of cognition, consisting in revealing the meaning of the results obtained and including them in the system of existing knowledge. Without this, their meaning and value remain unhidden. In the 60-70s. a direction developed - interpretive linguistics, which considered the meaning and meaning of linguistic units depending on the interpretive activity of a person.
Particular methodology - methods of specific sciences: linguistic, mathematical, etc., correlated with philosophical and general scientific methodology and can be borrowed by other sciences. Linguistic research methods are characterized by weak formalization of evidence and rare use of instrumental experiments. A linguist conducts analysis by applying existing knowledge about an object to specific material (text) from which a particular sample is made, and the theory is based on sample models. Free interpretation of various factual material according to the rules of formal logic and scientific intuition are characteristic features linguistic methods.
Term method has no clear interpretation. V.I. Kodukhov suggests distinguishing between 4 concepts expressed by this term:
· Method-aspect as a way of understanding reality;
· Method-technique as a set of research rules;
· Method-technique as a procedure for applying a method-technique;
· Method-way of description as an external form of technique and description technique.
Most often, a method is understood as a generalized set of theoretical principles and research techniques associated with a specific theory. The method always isolates that aspect of the object of study that is recognized as the main one in this theory: the historical aspect of language - in comparative historical linguistics, the psychological - in psycholinguistics, etc. Any major stage in the development of linguistics was accompanied by a change in the research method, the desire to create a new general method. Thus, each method has its own scope of application, examines its own aspects, properties and qualities of the object.
Research methodology is the procedure for applying a particular method, which depends on the aspect of the research, technique and methods of description, the personality of the researcher and other factors. Thus, in the quantitative study of language units, depending on the goals of the study, different methods can be used: approximate calculations, calculations using mathematical apparatus, complete or partial sampling of language units, etc. The methodology covers all stages of the study: observation and collection of material, selection of units of analysis and establishment of their properties, method of description, method of analysis, nature of interpretation of the phenomenon being studied. The difference in schools within one linguistic movement most often lies not in research methods, but in various techniques analysis and description of the material, the degree of their expression, formalization and significance in the theory and practice of research. This is how, for example, various schools of structuralism are characterized: Prague structuralism, Danish glossematics, American descriptivism.
Thus, method, methodology and technique are closely related and complement each other. The choice in each specific case of the methodological principle, the scope of application of the method and methodology depends on the researcher, the goals and objectives of the study.
In the theory of experimental psychology, the researcher must represent the division of the following epistemological psychological categories: methodology, method, technique, research tool, technology and equipment, testing, modeling, etc. (Fig. 1.3), which we will briefly discuss.
Rice. 1.3.
research
In the scientific literature, the term “methodology” is defined in at least four dimensions. Some authors interpret methodology as a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing research 1. A. Ya. Antsupov, M. I. Dyachenko and other researchers give this category a guiding status and define it as a path of research using methods of objective manifestations of the psyche and the disclosure of patterns. The Encyclopedic Dictionary notes that research methodology is a kind of teaching about methods, techniques, methods and means of cognition. According to A. Reber, this is a system of methods, specific procedures and tools used in research.
The structure of the concept of “methodology” is also presented in the form of four main elements: theoretical, substantive, practical and formal. Theoretical component methodology strives for a model of ideal knowledge - this is epistemology(cognitive science). Content-based methodology includes the study of laws, theories, the structure of scientific knowledge, scientific criteria and the system of research methods used - this is epistemology(the science of ways, methods of knowledge). Practical component methodology is a program (algorithm), a set of techniques and ways to achieve a practical goal without sinning against the truth. Finally, formal methodology is associated with the analysis of research methods from the point of view of logical structure and formalized approaches to the construction of theoretical knowledge, its truth and argumentation.
Methodology, based on accepted theories and conceptual approaches, defines (and includes) methods, means, methods and technologies of research. A combination of several methods is usually called a methodological approach.
Method(Greek methods - path of research or knowledge) is a constantly developing and changing way or a set of methods, techniques and operations, steps, actions. At this point, the views of many researchers coincide. However, in the content part (“the method of what?”), the authors’ differences appear. Some define a method as a way of constructing and justifying a system of knowledge (reality), others - as a way of solving a certain problem, achieving a goal, others - as a way of doing something, working with facts and concepts in a systematic manner 1. S. L. Rubinstein writes about the method as a way through which the subject of science is learned. The Psychological Dictionary notes that the method is the ego way of studying the psychological manifestations of a person’s personality. IN Philosophical Dictionary The method is interpreted as a method of theoretical and practical development (cognition) of activity.
Unlike the method methodology has authorship. In the Dictionary of Business Terms, a methodology is defined as a set of methods, techniques, tested and studied to perform certain work. S. L. Rubinshtein refers to methodology as a private, auxiliary or intermediate method of research. A. Reber argues that a technique is a derivative of a method, a specific learned procedure or set of procedures specified for a real situation to achieve some specific goal.
Within the framework of the theoretical presentation of the terms of psychological epistemology research tool presented synonymously with the concept of “method” and is interpreted as a technique, way actions to achieve something, a tool (object, set of devices) for carrying out some activity.
In modern psychology, the process of acceptance and active development by researchers of concepts that came to psychological science from other fields of knowledge is growing: philosophy, sociology, computer science, economics, etc. A striking example of this is the use in professional psychology and acmeology of the terms “technology”, “technique”, “tool”, “simulation”, “model”, etc.
Technology(Greek techne- art, skill, skill + logos - thought, reason; methodology, method of production) is a set of methods, processes and materials, a set of organizational measures, operations and techniques aimed at producing a product with nominal quality and optimal costs and determined by the current level of development of science, technology and society as a whole. This concept strongly associated with the term “technology”. In psychology under technology is understood, on the one hand, as a set of means human activity, including psychological tools (algorithms) and methods (for example, projective techniques, gaming techniques, etc.), and on the other hand, a cumulative description of the skills and techniques learned and acquired by people and used in any area of their life.
Tool(lat. instrumentum - tool) - an object, device, mechanism, machine or algorithm used to influence an object - change it or measure it in order to achieve a useful effect 1. The design and rules for using the instrument are based on knowledge of the laws of reality, environment, tasks and technological features activities. That is, technology, along with external conditions and goals, determines the purpose and functions of the tool. A tool is a means of influencing an object. However, the impact can be represented in the study in two ways - a tool (instrument) and an auxiliary material that facilitates the impact. In one case, this means can perform the function of a tool (instrument), and in another - an auxiliary material. For example, a statistical program implemented using a computer is a tool for processing empirical data. When computer program is used as a means of demonstrating stimulus material to subjects, then it performs the function of auxiliary material, and the test task is the instrument.
Modeling- a method and (or) process of studying mental phenomena using their real (physical) and ideal, primarily mathematical, models. Modeling should be an obligatory part of psychological research and development due to the complexity of material objects, the surrounding world, and the forms of their relationships and interactions. The modeling method (process) is based on the procedure for studying objects of reality by manipulating their models. The same objects may have different models depending on the goals and conditions of the study. Model(fr. modele, from lat. modulus - measure, analogue, sample) is some kind of artificial or natural system, the study of which serves as a means of obtaining knowledge about another system, is a simplified representation, an analogue of a certain real object or fragment of social reality (original), processes and phenomena occurring in it.
Like modeling, test(English, test - sample, test, check) is a certain psychological technique, which is often called a method of psychodiagnostics, using standardized questions and tasks (tests) that have a certain scale of values. Testing involves the use of tests. On the one hand, this is a method for studying the deep processes of human activity, on the other, a system of standardized tasks that allows you to measure the level of development of a certain psychological quality (property) of an individual.
Thus, the categories considered are fundamental in experimental psychology and carry within them a systematizing and structuring idea, which contains a special epistemological meaning that involves methodological verification of any, even obvious, hypothesis and concept. This verification must be streamlined and demonstrative, no matter how difficult and tedious it may be to carry out.
- See: Psychology: dictionary / under general. ed. A. V. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshevsky. 2nd ed. M.: Politizdat, 1990. P. 209; Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary/ ch. ed.L. F. Ilyichev [and others]. M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1983. P. 365.
- Problems of psychological research. Index of 1050 doctoral dissertations. 1935-2007. / A. Ya. Antsupov [etc.]; edited by A. Ya. Antsupova. M.: Studio "Ethnika", 2007.P. 12; Dyachenko M.I., Kapdybovich L.A., Kandybovich S.L. Psychological dictionary-reference book. M.: Publishing House Kupriyanova, 2009. P. 154.
- Soviet encyclopedic dictionary / ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. 4th ed. M.: Sov.encyclopedia, 1986. P. 797.
- Large explanatory psychological dictionary: in 2 volumes / A. Reber: trans. from English M.: Veche-AST, 2001. T. 1.S. 445.
- e Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. ed. L. F. Ilyichev [and others]. P. 364.
