The figurative meaning of words is especially common in artistic and conversational styles. There are these types of figurative meanings: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche.
Metaphor(from Greek Metaphora- transfer) is a type of figurative use of a word based on the similarity of certain characteristics. Most often, metaphorical transfer of signs and properties of objects to creatures and vice versa occurs, for example: And the earth, and the water, and the air - all fell asleep.
A metaphor can be built on:
1) similarities Fort: Having measured the evening curly icy costs window(M. Drai-Khmara)
2) color similarities: The sun was already setting to the west and filling the snowy valleys with a bloody sheen.(I. Franko)
3) similar properties: It is known what kind of person from Nevkipilogo is flint (A. Golovko)
4) similarities in the manifestation of feelings: Thoughts and memories tormented Kostomarov’s heart(M. Ivchenko)
5) similarities in behavior, mode of action Fatigue creeps in quietly, but he doesn’t let fatigue take over him.(V. Bychko).
A metaphor can also be based on impressions and assessments of what: Cherry scent of thoughts(M. Drai-Khmara).
On the basis of metaphorization in artistic speech, linguistic images are created: thunder of applause, star of hope.
Metonymy(from Greek Metonymia- renaming) is the transfer of a name from one class of objects or the name of one object to another, bordering, are in an organic connection with each other.
Can be carried:
1) the name of the room - for the people in it: The Institute celebrates its centenary(P. Voronko)
2) name of the material - on a product made from it: The whole table is covered with silver(i.e. silverware)
3) name of the action - for the result: stop(the action itself and the place where they stop)
4) the subject is studied - in the branch of science: anatomy and physiology;
5) the name of the event - for its participants: The conference adopted the appeal;
6) title emotional state- for its reason: Horror!;
8) name of the object - for the drug: head pills;
9) the name of the item - on what it contains: - Here, drink a glass, refresh yourself;
10) name of signs, properties - on its carrier: The folk bass himself, who was sitting in front, also ran onto the stage and kept up a little...(Yu. Yanovsky).
Synecdoche(from Greek Snekdoche- spivpereymannya) is a type of transfer of the name of a part to the name of the whole and vice versa. For example: Grinjolami silently passed the casing(M. Drai-Khmara).
Like metonymy, synecdoche is based on the concept of contiguity, but what is specific to it is that this contiguity is of a quantitative nature - more general and specific from the name: He has his hand everywhere, but what about us?(I. Karpenko-Kary). Synecdoche is used as a linguistic artistic medium, but not as often as metaphor and metonymy.
Homonyms. paronyms
Homonyms(from Greek Homos- identical and OPUT- name) are words that sound the same but have different meanings.
There are lexical homonyms: absolute (or complete) and incomplete. Complete homonyms occur within one part of speech. The sound composition of absolute (full) homonyms coincides in all grammatical forms. For example: corncrake - With migrant And landrail- the broom is erased.
Incomplete homonyms are words that do not sound the same in all grammatical forms. Incomplete lexical homonyms are called homoforms. For example: some(nominal) - Little fish and some(numerical) - An indefinite number of items; sons(nominal) - Genitive plural of a noun son And sons(ch.) - Past tense form masculine verb turn blue
Homographs- this is a spelling type of homonyms - words that are identical in spelling, but different in sound (have different stress) and meaning. For example: water - genitive singular noun water and water - nominative noun, used only in plural; antimony - wind musical instrument And antimony- silvery-white brittle metal.
Homophones- words that are the same in their sound composition, but different in meaning and spelling. For example: it's a dream(I'm dreaming) and Sun(shine).
Attention! Distinguish homonyms from ambiguous words. Between values polysemantic word there are connections, they are united general concept, similar to a feature or similar function. For example: pen(child) - pen(for writing) - pen(doors) root(oak) - root(tooth) - root(words). When individual values already move away from the main content of the word and lose connection with it, then these are homonyms. For example: Please(caresses) and Please(animal), right(side) and right(not guilty).
Paronyms- words that are quite close in sound composition and sound, but different in meaning. For example: whitewash And turn white; strong And (lilac, Often they have the same root, but differ only in suffix, prefix or ending. Minor difference in pronunciation leads to mistakes. Therefore, watch out for the use of unfamiliar words and check their meanings using an explanatory dictionary.
Polysemy (Greek poly – many + sēma – sign) is the phenomenon of lexical polysemy of words.
Polysemantic words are words that have several meanings. In a polysemantic word, one meaning is related to another in meaning. The word companion in the Russian Socialist Republic has several meanings, related to each other: 1) a person who makes a journey with someone: My companions turned out to be pleasant interlocutors; 2) something that accompanies something: Rock salt– oil satellite; 3) celestial body, orbiting the planet: the Moon is a satellite of the Earth; 4) a spacecraft launched into orbit using rocket devices.
Polysemy is contrasted with the phenomenon of monosemy.
Monosemy (Greek monos – one + sēma – sign) is the phenomenon of lexical unambiguity of words.
Single-valued words (monosemantics) are words with one LP. For example: a coat of arms is a distinctive sign of a state or city, which is depicted on flags, coins, seals (coat of arms, coat of arms; pl. coats of arms, coats of arms).
There are more polysemantic words in the language than single-valued ones. In explanatory dictionaries, individual meanings of polysemantic words are highlighted with numbers.
The polysemy of the word raises the problem of the typology of the word LP.
The types of LZ words are diverse. One of the first typologies of LP was developed by V.V. Vinogradov.
They are distinguished according to different parameters: basic and derivative; direct and figurative; free and connected and other LZ words.
Direct and figurative LZ words. Types of transfer of word meanings.
Primary meanings are considered direct, nominative, because they are directly aimed at phenomena of reality, they name objects, actions, signs (house, book, stone, iron, walking, standing, etc.).
Secondary values are portable because they are based on the transfer of names from one phenomenon to another. For example: a residential building and a house in the meaning of “family” (we know each other’s houses, i.e. our families visit each other), stone house and stony heart (i.e. hard, hard, “like a stone”, like a stone), a man is walking and time goes by (i.e. flows, moves).
Nominative, direct meanings usually do not contain an assessment of the phenomenon, while figurative ones often turn out to contain an assessment of the corresponding phenomena (cf.: stone house and stone heart, steel rod and steel character, sour milk and sour mood, etc.).
Often the names of animals are used in a figurative meaning: fox - cunning, donkey or ram - stupid, bear or elephant - clumsy, lion - brave, courageous person.
Direct and figurative meanings of words differ in context: a bird’s wing is an airplane wing, a girl’s hat is a nail head.
Over time, figurative meanings can become direct for polysemantic words: teapot spout, door handle, table leg.
Types of transfer of word meanings
The transfer of a name from one object to another is explained either by the similarity or connection of these objects. There are several types of figurative and figurative use of words.
Metaphor (from ancient Greek metaphora) - transfer of a name from one object to another based on their similarity: the filling of a statement, the leg of a chair, the worm of doubt, a bitter smile, little green ones (about dollars), a bright mind, the eye of a needle, etc. .
Renaming objects based on their connection in space or time is called metonymy (Greek metonymia - “renaming”).
So, for example, in the phrase I ate three plates (I.A. Krylov), the word plate denotes two phenomena at the same time - food and plate. Like metaphor, metonymy is an “overlay” of its direct meaning on the figurative meaning of a word - with the only difference that both components are connected by relations not of similarity, but of contiguity.
Phenomena brought into connection through metonymy and forming an “objective pair” can relate to each other as (types of metonymy):
item and material: Not on silver, but on gold (A.S. Griboyedov);
contents and containing: The flooded stove is cracking (A.S. Pushkin);
bearer of property and property: The city takes courage (proverb);
creation and creator: A man... He will carry Belinsky and Gogol from the market (N.A. Nekrasov);
whole and part: Hey, beard! and how to get from here to Plyushkin (N.V. Gogol), etc.
The last type of metonymic transfer is specially distinguished and is called synecdoche (Greek synecdoche - “correlation”, “competition”, “co-impliation”), i.e. naming a whole through a part and vice versa.
The ambiguity of a word or polysemy is the presence of several interconnected meanings for the same word. The ambiguity of a word arises in the process of the historical development of language, when a word, due to semantic transfers, along with the designation of one object or phenomenon of objective reality, begins to be used to designate another, similar to it in some characteristics or properties. Potentially, any word in a language can acquire a new meaning when the need arises, therefore, as a rule, there are more polysemantic words in a language than single-valued ones. In the Russian language, for example, there are especially many polysemantic words among the vocabulary of original Russian origin or long-term use (cf. polysemantic words house, earth, field, star, bread, etc.).
The semantic development of a word occurs, as a rule, in two directions:
1. by changing denotations, when the name is transferred from one object or action to another;
1. by enriching the concept and deepening the meaning of the word.
Despite the changes that occur in the semantic structure of the word, the connection between the meanings of a polysemantic word remains. The presence of this connection gives grounds to consider them to be the values of one and the same
the same word, but qualify as lexico-semantic variants. Any polysemantic word consists of a set of interconnected elementary lexical units or lexical-semantic variants.
The connection between the meanings of a polysemantic word is often manifested in the presence of common associative features that unite these meanings.
The system of meanings of a polysemantic word is organized hierarchically, i.e. basic (or principal) and derived meanings are distinguished. Basic meanings are the least contextually determined (they are the ones that arise in the minds of speakers when pronouncing a word out of context), while derivatives (or figurative ones) are realized only in context (cf., for example, the meanings of the verb look: its main meaning is “to direct the gaze to see someone -something or something": look out the window, in the mirror, at the clock, etc.; derivative - "have an appearance": look like a good fellow).
When describing the system of meanings of a polysemantic word and their hierarchy, two types of relations of its meanings are usually distinguished - main and particular and invariant and variant meanings of the word.
The direct meaning of the word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly aimed at the subject (immediately evokes an idea of the subject, phenomenon) and is least dependent on the context. Words denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in
direct meaning.
The figurative meaning of a word is its secondary meaning that arose on the basis of the direct one. For example:
Toy, -i, f. 1. A thing used for playing. Children's toys.
2. transfer One who blindly acts according to someone else's will is an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.
The essence of polysemy lies in the fact that some name of an object or phenomenon is transferred, transferred also to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects or phenomena simultaneously. Depending on the basis on which the name is transferred,” there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.
Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: ripe apple - eyeball (in shape); the nose of a person - the bow of a ship (by location); chocolate bar - chocolate tan (by color); bird wing - airplane wing (by function); the dog howled - the wind howled (according to the nature of the sound), etc.
Metonymy (the Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity *, for example: water boils - the kettle boils; porcelain dish - delicious dish; native gold - Scythian gold, etc. A type of metonymy is synecdoche.
Synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - co-implying) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant - ripe currant; beautiful mouth - extra mouth (oh superfluous person in the family); big head - smart head, etc.
In the process of developing figurative names, a word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding its basic meaning. Over time, figurative meanings can become direct.
It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context. Compare, for example, the sentences: 1) We sat on the corner of the bastion, so that we could see everything in both directions (M. Lermontov). 2) In Tarakanovka, as in the deepest bearish corner, there was no place for secrets (D. Mamin-Sibiryak)
* Adjacent - located directly next to each other, having a common border.
In the first sentence, the word angle is used in its literal meaning: “the place where two sides of something meet or intersect.” And in stable combinations “in a remote corner”, “bearish corner” the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a remote corner - in a remote area, bearish corner - a remote place.
In explanatory dictionaries direct meaning words are given first, and figurative meanings are numbered 2, 3, 4, 5. A meaning recorded as figurative recently comes with the mark “peren,”, for example:
Wooden, oh, oh. 1. Made of wood, 2. removable. Motionless, unexpressive. Wooden facial expression. Wood oil is a cheap type of olive oil.
Types of portable values
Depending on the basis on which meaning is transferred from one object to another, the following types of figurative meanings of a word are distinguished.
1) Transfer of meanings based on any similarity between objects or phenomena. Such figurative meanings are called metaphorical. Metaphor (from the Greek Metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object, action, property, phenomenon to other actions, properties, phenomena based on the similarity of their characteristics (for example, shape, color, function, location, etc.). Examples of metaphorical meanings:
a) onion head, eyeball - transfer based on the similarity of the shape of objects;
b) the bow of a boat, the tail of a train, the head of a nail - transfer based on the similarity of the arrangement of objects;
c) wiper (meaning “a cleaning device on the glass of a car”), electric position, watchman (meaning “a device on a dish for holding boiling milk”) - transfer based on the similarity of the functions of objects.
Many metaphorical figurative meanings of the word are characterized by anthropomorphism, that is, the assimilation of the properties of the surrounding physical world to the properties of a person. Compare these examples: an angry wind, indifferent nature, the breath of spring, “The River is Playing” (the title of the story by V.G. Korolenko), the stream is running, the volcano has awakened, etc.
On the other hand, some properties and phenomena of inanimate matter are transferred to the human world, for example: a cold look, an iron will, a heart of stone, a golden character, a mop of hair, a ball of thoughts, etc. Metaphors are general linguistic when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely , as a result of which it is known to all speakers of a given language (nail head, bayou, black envy, iron will), and individual, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic manner and not becoming widespread. Compare, for example, metaphors:
S.A. Yesenin: fire of red rowan, birch tongue of the grove, chintz of the sky, grains of the eyes, etc.;
B.L. Pasternak: the labyrinth of the lyre, the bloody tears of September, the buns of lanterns and the crumpets of the roofs, etc.
2) Transfer of names from one subject to another based on the contiguity of these subjects. This transfer of meaning is called metonymy (from the Greek Metonymia - renaming). Metonymic transfers of meaning are often formed according to certain regular types:
a) material - a product made from this material. For example, the words gold and crystal can denote products made from these materials (she has gold in her ears; there is solid crystal on the shelves);
b) vessel - the contents of the vessel (ate two plates, drank a cup);
c) author - the works of this author (I read Pushkin, I know Nerkasov by heart);
d) action - an object of action (actions aimed at publishing a book, an illustrated edition of a book as an object);
e) action - the result of action (construction of a monument - monumental structure);
f) action - a means or instrument of action (putty of cracks - fresh putty, fastening of gear - ski binding, transmission of movement - bicycle transmission);
g) action - place of action (exiting the house - standing at the exit, traffic stop - bus stop);
h) animal - fur or meat of an animal (a hunter caught a fox - what kind of fur is it, arctic fox or fox?).
One of the peculiar types of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche (from the Greek Sinekdoche - ratio) is the ability of a word to name both a part of something and the whole. For example, the words face, mouth, head, hand indicate the corresponding parts human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: unauthorized persons are prohibited from entering; there are five mouths in the family; Kolya is a bright-headed person.
Some characteristic features of a person - beard, glasses, clothes and others are often used to denote a person. For example:
- Hey, beard, where are you going?
- I’m standing behind the blue cloak...
“It’s true that it’s expensive,” sigh the red trousers (Ch.)
Ways to form word meanings
The ways of forming the meanings of words are different.
1. A new meaning of a word can arise, for example, by transferring the name based on the similarity of objects or their characteristics, i.e. metaphorically (from gr. metaphora- transfer). For example:
By similarity of external characteristics: nose(person) - nose(ship);
Item shapes: apple(Antonovskoe) - apple(eye);
Based on the similarity of sensations and assessments: warm(current) - warm(participation), etc.
2. It is also possible to transfer names based on the similarity of the functions performed (i.e. functional transfers): feather(goose) - feather(steel), conductor(official accompanying the train) - conductor(in technology, a device that guides a tool).
3. A new meaning can arise as a result of the appearance of an association by contiguity (so-called metonymic transfers, Greek metonymia- renaming). For example:
The name of the material is transferred to the product made from this material: bronze chandelier(name of material) - Antique bronze was sold in an antique store(product made from this material);
Various kinds of co-impliations also arise in a metonymic way (gr. synekdoche), i.e. naming an action and its result in one word, cf.: do embroidery- exhibition of artistic embroidery, parts and the whole (and vice versa), cf.: Pea coats with peakless peaks and gray overcoats flashed(those. sailors and infantrymen; in this case, the person is named after a piece of clothing), etc.
4. A new meaning can arise from the convergence of the sound and semantics of words ( tallow candle - tallow joke).
IN educational literature a different number of traditional types of figurative meanings of words are called. In some cases, only metaphor and metonymy are distinguished, in others - metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche and functional transfer.
Metaphor is the transfer of the name of one object to another based on the similarity of their external or internal characteristics, the shape of the objects, their location. For example:
Forms ( bird wing - airplane wing);
Locations ( the tail of the hare is the tail of the train);
Colors ( egg white - eye white);
Nature of movement ( caterpillar – tractor caterpillar);
Functions ( wiper - windshield wiper), etc.
Let's compare: The warm Gulf Stream is a warm letter. This man has nerves of iron. Sobakevich was a real bear.
There are two main types of metaphor: cognitive (cognitive) and figurative .
Cognitive metaphor is a reflection of the real or ascribed community of the corresponding objects. For example, the word wall has following values:
1) vertical part of the building (straight);
2) a tightly closed row of people in a fist fight (figurative).
figurative metaphor is a metaphor that creates a visual impression of the signified and has an expressive-evaluative meaning. For example, the word star has the following meanings:
1) celestial body (direct);
2) famous person(portable).
A type of metaphor is personification. This is when qualities or actions inherent in a person are attributed to an inanimate object or abstract concept.
Most often this occurs in poetry.
For example:
The storm covers the sky with darkness,
Whirling snow whirlwinds
Then, like a beast, she will howl.
She will cry like a child.(Pushkin)
And star speaks to star.(Lermontov)
And the forest stands there, smiling.(Nikitin)
Entire poetic texts are sometimes built around the device of personification. For example, a poem by V.V. Mayakovsky " An Extraordinary Adventure what happened to Vladimir Mayakovsky (in the summer on Shark Mountain, at the dacha )» (see Appendix 4).
Exercise:
Read the poem by V.V. Mayakovsky “An extraordinary adventure that happened with Vladimir Mayakovsky in the summer at the dacha (Pushkino, Akulova Gora, Rumyantsev’s dacha, 27 versts along the Yaroslavl railway.) » (see Appendix 4), find the personification.
Metonymy – transfer of a name from one object, phenomenon, action to another based on their contiguity. Metonymy is based on spatial, temporal, logical and other relationships.
For example, in the fable of I.A. Krylov “Demyanov’s ear”: “Neighbor, listen, have another plate.”(Here the association of content with content occurs.)
Let's also compare: I read all of Yesenin. I really love Chekhov, Tchaikovsky, Repin.
Metonymy is often used to refer to:
Item by material from which it is made (pierced with iron instead of iron weapons)
Item by its property (murder is worthy of execution instead of the murderer deserves to be executed)
Content by item containing it (sharp head instead of sharp mind in the head),
Time on an object characterizing this time (learn until your hair is gray instead of study until old age).
Based on this, the types of metonymy include the following states:
1. Material – product. For example, the word gold has the following meanings:
1) precious metal yellow;
2) coins, gold products.
2. Action – the purpose of the action. For example, the word burn has the following meanings:
1) prepare by burning;
2) heat up, damage with heat.
3. A sign is a thing. For example, the word white has the following meanings:
1) bright, pure color;
2) name of washing powder, etc.
In the famous poem by V. Mayakovsky “To Comrade Nette - the Steamship and the Man” (see Appendix 5) the technique of metonymy is also used.
Exercise:
Read the poem by V.V. Mayakovsky “To Comrade Nette - a steamship and a person” (see Appendix 5), find the metonymy.
Synecdoche- this is a transfer of the meaning of a word, through which the whole (something larger) is revealed through its part (something smaller).
For example:
Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts.(Pushkin)
And you could hear the Frenchman rejoicing until dawn.(Lermontov)
Hey beard , how to get from here to Plyushkin?(Gogol)
Let us also compare the use of synecdoche in sayings: I got burned like a Swede near Poltava. My head is gone.
Exercise:
Read an excerpt from the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “Borodino” (see Appendix 6) and excerpts from the poems of A.S. Pushkin “The Bronze Horseman” and “Poltava” (see Appendices 7, 8). Look for synecdoche in them.
There are two types of synecdoche:
1. With expansion of meaning. For example, the word bass has the following meanings:
2. With narrowing of meaning. For example, the word sable has the following meanings:
1) a predatory animal;
2) the fur of this animal.
Functional transfer meaning arises on the basis of the similarity of the functions of objects. For example, the word hammer has the following meanings:
1) a large heavy hammer for forging metal;
2) a mechanism with an impact device for metal forming.
Lecture No.3 (2 h.)
Polysemy of the word
The concept of polysemy as a historical category. Types of figurative meanings of a polysemantic word. Semantic structure of a polysemantic word. Types of polysemy. Functions of polysemous words.
The purpose of the lecture is to give the concept of polysemy and types of polysemy, to consider the types of figurative meanings.
1. The concept of polysemy as a historical category
Most common words in the Russian language have not one, but
several meanings. The ability of a word to have multiple meanings is called polysemy, orpolysemy. A word that has several meanings is called a polysemantic word, or polysemantic.
Each individual meaning of a polysemous word is called a lexical
semantic variant (LSV). Examples of words with several LSVs include the words table (1. type of furniture; 2. set of dishes; 3. institution), audience (1. classroom; 2. listeners), window (1. hole in the wall of a building for light and air ; 2. a gap, a hole in something; 3. unoccupied time, a gap in the schedule), etc.
Initially, each word appears to be unambiguous.
However, in the process of language development, words as a result of its use “acquire” more and more new meanings, especially if they are used frequently and in several areas. The more often a word is used, the more meanings it has (there are exceptions to this pattern, but they are quite rare).
At all, reasons There are several developments of secondary, or derivative, meanings:
1. Human consciousness is limitless, but the resources of language are limited,
Therefore, we are forced to denote different objects with one sign, but
similar in our understanding, connected by associative relationships.
Consequently, polysemy helps to save linguistic resources.
2. More importantly, polysemy reflects the most important
the property of cognition and thinking is a generalized reproduction of reality. The development of ambiguity contributes to the development of mental operations. Consequently, polysemy not only saves our speech efforts, but is also in a convenient way storing information about the world.
2. Types of figurative meanings of a polysemantic word
Lexico-semantic variants, or individual meanings of a polysemantic word, formed in the process of historical development as a result of the transfer of signs and properties of one object to another, are called figurative meanings. There are several types of figurative meanings: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.
Metaphor(Greek metaphora “transfer”) – transfer of the name of one object to another based on the similarity of their external or internal characteristics. Metaphorical transfer is very diverse: it can be in shape - a ring on a hand, a ring of smoke; by color - gold ring, smoke ring; by purpose - fireplace lit, electric fireplace; location – cat’s tail, comet’s tail; assessment – clear day, clear style; by attribute, impression – black color, black thoughts.
Metaphorization often occurs as a result of the transfer of the properties of an inanimate object to an animate one or vice versa: iron rods - iron nerves; golden ring - golden hands; the roar of a bear is the roar of a waterfall. Similar figurative meanings are noted in explanatory dictionary, because are common language. In a literary text, in poetry, one can meet
sharp (Chekhov), country of birch chintz (Yesenin) - the meanings of such words
understandable only in context.
Metonymy(Greek metonymia “renaming”) – transfer from one
object on another based on spatial, logical, temporal connection or on the basis of emerging associations.
And every evening at the appointed hour
(Or is it just me dreaming)
The girl's figure, captured by silks,
A window moves through a foggy window. (A. Blok).
An example of metonymic meanings in this context are
the words stan meaning “girl” and silk – “clothing made of silk fabric”.
In the Russian language there are several varieties of metonymic
transfer:
- from the name of the action - to the result of the action: do embroidery - beautiful embroidery, soda water - drink soda.
- from the name of the action - to the scene of the action: entry is prohibited - the entrance is blocked, the train stops for 5 minutes - the parking lot is closed.
- from the name of the action - to the subject of the action: management of the institute - change of leadership; attack on the cashier – a team attack consists of 3 players.
- from the name of the container - to its contents: 304th audience - the audience listened attentively, the desk - the festive table.
– from the name of the material – to the product made from it: high-grade silver – table silver.
- from the name of the institution - to the name of the people: worked at the plant - the plant voted for the director.
- from the name of the institution - to the premises: organized the laboratory - entered the laboratory.
- from the name settlement- on its inhabitants: a city not far from the river - the city fell asleep.
Metonymy also includes the transfer of a proper name to a common noun: visited Cashmere (state of India) - a coat made of cashmere.
Metonymic transfer is characteristic of colloquial speech, when syntactic constructions are shortened. For example, I love Pushkin (in the meaning of his work); After coffee they didn’t leave for a long time.
Synecdoche(Greek synekdoche “co-implying”) - replacing a word denoting a known object or group of objects with a word denoting only part of the named object or a single object. Some linguists classify synecdoche as metonymy, because transfer occurs on the basis of associations of the whole and part of the object. For example, Otkole, smart one, you are delirious, head; There are plums - plant plums.
3. Types of polysemy
Observing the types of figurative meanings, we were once again convinced that the meanings of a polysemantic word are interconnected and form a hierarchically arranged semantic structure. In these relations, the systematic nature of vocabulary at the level of one word (epidigmatic) is manifested. The meanings of a polysemous can be related in different ways, therefore the following types of polysemy are distinguished: radial, chain and mixed.
Radialpolysemy observed then if all derivatives are second-
significant values are directly related and motivated by direct meaning
nim. Radial polysemy, for example, is observed in the words table (1. Type of me-
leucorrhoea 2. Food. 3. Institution) and sand. (1. Composed of sand. 2. Colors
sand 3. Crumbly like sand): each derivative meaning of these words
follows from the main (direct) meaning.
With chainpolysemy each subsequent value is associated with
previous and is motivated by the previous LSV. For example, right 1.
Opposite to the left (right bank). 2. In politics – conservative,
reactionary (right party). 3. During work movement – oppositional, evasive
Mixed polysemy(radial-chain) combines characteristics
both radial and chain. Green 1. The colors of grass. 2. About complexion: pale, sallow.3. Pertaining to or consisting of vegetation. 4. About the fruit: unripe. 5. Inexperienced. When considering the connection between different lexical-semantic meanings of this word, the motivation of the 2nd and 3rd meanings is revealed first; 4th – third; and the fifth is connected with the fourth.
4. Functions of polysemous words
Along with the purely semantic function of naming dissimilar objects in one word, polysemantic words also have stylistic functions.
In context, a polysemantic word can serve as a means of expression due to the repetition of one LSV: A wedge is knocked out with a wedge; Fool is a fool.
Multivalued units are actively involved in the creation pun,
irony, comic effect due to rapprochement different meanings one word: Darling is too expensive (Darling 1. Favorite. 2. Expensive); The young one was no longer young (Ilf and Petrov “12 chairs”. Young: 1. Young. 2.
Married); This athlete hit not only the targets, but also the spectators (Hit 1. Accurately hit the target. 2. Surprise). A thought expressed in a pun form looks brighter and sharper. The film was shot twice: the first time in the studio, the second on the screen; The hardest thing is to pass the time; The radio awakens your thoughts even when you really want to sleep.
Ambiguity usually does not interfere with the perception of speech, because communication conditions (context) help to correctly understand the phrase. However, misunderstandings often occur.
The teacher asks the boy:
– What does mom do?
Senior Researcher.
In what area?
In Moscow..
Sometimes the inept use of polysemantic words leads to ambiguity: (From the essay) We visited the museum and took away the most valuable, the most interesting; Our guys are used to taking everything good
from each other.
Literature
1. Kasatkin L.A., Klobukov E.V., Lekant P.A. A short guide to the modern Russian language. – M., 1991.
2. Novikov L. A. Semantics of the Russian language: Uch. allowance. – M., 1982.
3. Modern Russian language / Ed. L.A. Novikova. – M., 2001
4. Modern Russian language / Ed. E.I. Dibrova. – M., 2001.
5. Fomina M.I. Modern Russian language. Lexicology. – M., 2003.
6. Shmelev D.N. Modern Russian language. Vocabulary. – M., 1977.
Security questions
1. Why is polysemy a historical phenomenon?
2. What types of connections between lexical-semantic variants are found in the structure of a polysemantic word?
3. How does metaphor differ from metonymy?
4. What types of metaphor and metonymy are distinguished?
5. What are the functions of polysemantic words in a language?
Polysemy (polysemy)
Paronymic relationships
Paronyms(gr. para - near, around, onyma - name) - these are words that are similar in sound (and spelling), but different in meaning, for example: patronymic - fatherland, subscriber - subscription.
Two understandings have emerged, two points of view on paronyms and, accordingly, two groups are distinguished.
1. Paronyms are just words single-rooted: patronymic - fatherland, seconded - business trip, subscriber - subscription etc.
2. Paronyms are words that have both the same root and multi-rooted: escalator – excavator.
The similarity of paronyms (especially single-root ones) can lead to errors in their use. It is necessary to know their meanings exactly.
Ignorant– a rude, ill-mannered person; ignoramus- a poorly educated person.
Subscription – a document granting the right to service, use something, as well as the right to do so (a subscription to a theater, a subscription to a series of lectures, an interlibrary loan); subscriber– the one who uses the subscription;
Indian - Indian, diplomat - diplomat etc.
In any language there are two groups of words - unambiguous and polysemous. Words that have the same lexical meaning - unambiguous, monosemantic, for example, words with a narrow subject meaning ( binoculars, trolleybus), terminological names: sharp(music), gastritis(honey.). M ambiguous, polysemantic words have multiple meanings, the ability of words to have multiple meanings is called polysemy, or polysemy.
For example, the word is ambiguous old: 1) An old grandfather was sitting on the rubble(reached maturity); 2) An old friend is better than two new ones(old); 3) We visited the old apartment(former, former before something else).
Among the meanings of a polysemantic word, direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished.
1) Direct (basic, main) meaning of the word directly correlates with the phenomena of reality. For example, horse– ‘little horse’.
2) Portable (indirect) meanings arise as a result of the transfer of names from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, commonality of their characteristics, functions, etc. Figurative meanings of the word horse: ‘device for skating on ice’, ‘hobby’, ‘carved wooden decoration on the roof of a hut’.
1. Metaphor(gr. metaphora - transfer) - transfer of a name from one object to another based on any similarity of their characteristics.
Items may be similar
1) according to the shape: draw a circle -> lifebuoy, steering wheel 'drying, donut' -> steering wheel 'steering wheel';
2) by color: golden ring –> golden hair, golden autumn;
3) by function: janitor (person) –> wipers (windshield wipers);
4) by the similarity of the arrangement of objects and their parts: the tail of an animal -> the tail of a comet, the sole of a shoe -> the sole of a mountain;
5) transfer of qualities, properties, actions of people and animals to inanimate objects - personification(howl of a wolf -> howl of the wind) and vice versa (empty bucket -> empty head, iron parts -> iron, steel nerves, water was boiling -> the crowd was boiling), etc.
2. Metonymy(gr. metonymia - renaming) - transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity. This
1) transferring the name of the material to a product made from it: Our athletes brought from the Olympics gold And silver;
2) transferring the name of the place (room) to the groups of people who are there: Audience listened carefully to the lecturer;
3) transferring the name of the vessel to its contents: Eat some more spoon, porcelain dish –> delicious dish;
A type of metonymy - synecdoche. This is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa:
Aksakal(Turkic) literally "white beard".
“And it was heard until dawn how he rejoiced Frenchman» (M. Lermontov)
"Hey, beard! How do you get from here to Plyushkin?” (N. Gogol)
