FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION OF THE RF
STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"UFA STATE AVIATION
TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY"
Department of Language Communication
and psycholinguistics ONF
Test
in the course “Russian language and culture of speech”
option no. 5
Ufa – 20 11
1. The concept of “Modern Russian” literary language».
Modern Russian is the national language of the great Russian people, a form of Russian national culture.
The Russian language belongs to the group of Slavic languages, which are divided into three subgroups: eastern - the languages Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian; southern - languages Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian; Western - languages Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian, Lusatian. Going back to the same source - the common Slavic language, all Slavic languages are close to each other, as evidenced by the similarity of a number of words, as well as the phenomena of the phonetic system and grammatical structure. For example: Russian tribe, Bulgarian tribe, Serbian tribe, Polish plemiê, Czech plémě, Russian clay, Bulgarian clay, Czech hlina, Polish glina; Russian summer, Bulgarian lato, Czech léto, Polish lato; Russian red, Serbian krasan, Czech krásný; Russian milk, Bulgarian milk, Serbian milk, Polish mieko, Czech mléko, etc.
The Russian national language is a historically established linguistic community and unites the entire set of linguistic means of the Russian people, including all Russian dialects and dialects, as well as social jargons.
The highest form of the national Russian language is the Russian literary language.
At different historical stages of development, the common native language- from a national language to a national one - in connection with the change and expansion of the social functions of the literary language, the content of the concept of “literary language” changed.
The modern Russian literary language is a standardized language that serves the cultural needs of the Russian people; it is the language of state acts, science, the press, radio, theater, and fiction.
“The division of language into literary and folk,” wrote M.A. Bitter, means only that we have, so to speak, a “raw” language and processed by masters.”
The standardization of a literary language lies in the fact that the composition of the dictionary in it is regulated, the meaning and use of words, pronunciation, spelling and education grammatical forms words follow a generally accepted pattern. The concept of norm, however, does not exclude in some cases options reflecting changes that constantly occur in language as a means of human communication. For example, the following stress options are considered literary: far - far, high - high, otherwise - otherwise; gram. forms: waving - waving, meowing - meowing, rinsing - rinsing.
Modern literary language, not without the influence of the media, is noticeably changing its status: the norm is becoming less rigid, allowing for variation. It is not oriented towards inviolability and universality, but rather towards communicative expediency. Therefore, the norm today is often not so much a ban on something as an opportunity to choose. The border between normativity and non-normativity is sometimes blurred, and some colloquial and colloquial linguistic facts become variants of the norm. Becoming a public domain, the literary language easily absorbs previously forbidden means of linguistic expression. It is enough to give an example of the active use of the word “lawlessness,” which previously belonged to criminal jargon.
Literary language has two forms: oral and written, which are characterized by features both in terms of lexical composition and grammatical structure, because they are designed for different types perception - auditory and visual.
Written literary language differs from oral language primarily in the greater complexity of syntax and the presence of a large amount of abstract vocabulary, as well as terminological vocabulary, in particular international. Written literary language has stylistic varieties: scientific, official business, journalistic, and artistic styles.
Literary language, as a standardized, processed national language, is opposed to local dialects and jargons. Russian dialects are united into two main groups: the Northern Russian dialect and the Southern Russian dialect. Each group has its own distinctive features in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammatical forms. In addition, there are Central Russian dialects, which reflect the features of both dialects.
The modern Russian literary language is the language of interethnic communication between peoples Russian Federation. The Russian literary language introduces all the peoples of Russia to the culture of the great Russian people.
Since 1945, the UN Charter has recognized the Russian language as one of the official languages peace.
There are numerous statements by great Russian writers and public figures, as well as many progressive foreign writers about power, wealth and artistic expression Russian language. Derzhavin and Karamzin, Pushkin and Gogol, Belinsky and Chernyshevsky, Turgenev and Tolstoy spoke enthusiastically about the Russian language.
The modern Russian language course consists of the following sections: vocabulary and phraseology, phonetics and phonology, spelling, graphics and spelling, word formation, grammar (morphology and syntax), punctuation.
Vocabulary and phraseology study the vocabulary and phraseological composition of the Russian language and the patterns of its development.
Phonetics describes the sound composition of the modern Russian literary language and the main sound processes occurring in the language; the subject of phonology is phonemes - the shortest sound units that serve to distinguish the sound shells of words and their forms.
Orthoepy studies the norms of modern Russian literary pronunciation.
Graphics introduces the composition of the Russian alphabet, the relationship between letters and sounds, and spelling introduces the basic principle of Russian writing - morphological, as well as phonetic and traditional spellings. Spelling is a set of rules that determine the spelling of words.
Word formation studies the morphological composition of a word and the main types of formation of new words: morphological, morphological-syntactic, lexical-semantic, lexical-syntactic.
Morphology is the study of grammatical categories and grammatical forms of words. She studies the lexical and grammatical categories of words, the interaction of lexical and grammatical meanings of a word, and ways of expressing grammatical meanings in the Russian language.
Syntax is the study of sentences and phrases. Syntax studies the basic syntactic units - phrases and sentences, types syntactic connection, types of sentences and their structure.
Punctuation is built on the basis of syntax - a set of rules for placing punctuation marks.
2. Using a dictionary of stresses, a spelling dictionary, place stress in the following words (if a word has stress options, be sure to indicate them in parentheses):
Ned at g, Prigov O r, percent e nt, there O zhenya, rolled O g, bureaucr A tia, call And t, ext s cha, zagov O shopkeeper, stealer And nsky, dispensary e r, cold A , sold, quart A l (sq A rotal), an A Tom, booked A t (booked And to lay out), lay out And yes, carried out O , points A it's cramped s , lied A .
3. Eliminate speech errors in the sentences below and write them correctly
We were attracted by both nearby forests and distant fields. Put your foot step back. At the border they were searched and their bags were checked. He is not tied to any one acting role. The old man brought me to my knees with his questions
We were attracted by both nearby forests and distant fields. Place your feet on the ground. At the border they were searched and their bags were checked. He is not attached to any acting role. The old man brought me to white heat with his questions.
4. Define lexical meaning and stylistic coloring of the phraseological units given below. Compose a coherent text that will include all 10 phraseological units.
1) At a snail's pace, at full speed, neither this nor that, slurp jelly seven miles away, put a spoke in the wheels, a teaspoon per hour, call a spade a spade, doesn't shine with intelligence, can't see beyond your nose, in the middle of nowhere .
1. at a snail's pace (lexical meaning: Turtle - designation, step - action; Stylistic coloring: colloquial speech).
- To the fullest extent (lexical meaning:; Stylistic coloring: bookish)
- neither this nor that (lexical meaning:
- to slurp jelly seven miles away (lexical meaning
5. Put the correct emphasis and define the following words commonly used in the field of politics and economics:
Excitement A and– 1) Extreme activity of exchange trading participants caused by an unexpected sharp change in the exchange rate of securities, exchange rates or commodity prices (associated with the possibility of obtaining quick and large profits or significant losses)
2) Strong excitement, a struggle of interests around something. matter, question.
Cons O ratio- Temporary agreement between several banks or industrial companies for the joint placement of a loan, carrying out some. large financial transactions.
AND import- Import of goods from abroad into any country
6. Determine the gender of nouns and abbreviations, matching adjective definitions with them and create phrases:
1) Coffee, Bizet, cliche, VAK, meringue, NATO, know-how, trio, Mali, impresario, bikini, Chicago.
Coffee – m.r., Invite for coffee
Cliché - MS., Psychological cliché
VAK – m.r. dissertation for Higher Attestation Commission
Meringue -.sr.r, meringue cake
NATO-zh.r., North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Know-how - MS., unusual know-how
Trio – MS.R., trio for violin
Mali - Wed, Mali's poverty
Impresario – m.r., successful impresario
Bikini - MS., beautiful bikini
Chicago - m.r., disappear from Chicago
7. Form im.p. forms. plural nouns:
8. Form genus forms. plural nouns:
1) Grams, kilograms, Hungarians, comments, tangerines, Kalmyks, miners, socks.
Grams, kilograms, Hungarians, comments, tangerines, Kalmyks, miners, socks
9. Write the numbers in words: 1) In 564 cases, 893,467 workers, a wallet with 3,567 rubles, at least 336 rivers, up to 849 meters. In five hundred and sixty-four cases, eight hundred and ninety-three thousand, four hundred and sixty-seven workers had a wallet with three thousand, five hundred and sixty-seven rubles, no less than three hundred and thirty-six rivers, up to eight hundred and forty-nine meters.10. Find and correct syntax errors in the following sentences:
He reminded his neighbor about everything that had happened. Chaos on the roads and hundreds of accidents caused a sharp drop in temperature and ice. Having met Olga, any desire to risk his life disappeared. We can remember and pay tribute to those who have fallen victim to crime fighting. When you come home from work, your home will greet you with warmth and the smell of pies.
Corrected Work
He told his neighbor about everything that happened. A sharp drop in temperature and ice caused chaos and hundreds of accidents on the roads. Having met Olga, he lost all desire to risk his life. We can remember and pay tribute to those who have been victims of crime fighting. When you come home from work, you will be greeted with warmth and the smell of pies.
Literary language is a standard multifunctional form of existence of the national language, serving, first of all, the area of official life: state and society, press, school (in other words, it is the language of general normative grammars and dictionaries). “Vertically” (i.e. axiologically) the literary language is opposed to the language of unofficial life: territorial and social dialects, vernacular, uncodified colloquial speech. “Horizontally” (i.e. functionally) the literary language is opposed to non-everyday forms of language existence, namely the languages of material and spiritual culture (this does not mean different “natural” ones, but different sociocultural languages - a kind of “languages in language”). Their difference from the literary language is rooted in the general difference between the three global spheres of culture: everyday life, on the one hand, and material and spiritual culture, on the other. Specialized branches of material and spiritual creativity focus on evolution, change, and the discovery of new things; everyday life is aimed mainly at genesis, i.e. to reproduce, multiply, replicate what was previously achieved in other areas, as well as to coordinate the work of narrow areas of socio-cultural activity. Using the romantic image of V. Khlebnikov, the contradictions that arise in culture between evolution and genesis can be called the conflict of “inventors” and “acquirers”: the economy “acquires” the achievements of material culture, ideology - the achievements of spiritual culture; politics tries to reconcile and link economics with ideology. In a society of this type, official communication between spiritual culture, material culture and everyday life is carried out using literary language.
The focus on genesis results in two fundamental features of literary language:. The first - its communicativeness - is associated with the partial distribution between the spheres of culture of the three most important language functions: nominative, communicative and cognitive. The destiny of material culture is primarily a nomination: each technical dialect represents an exhaustive nomenclature of relevant objects, phenomena, events, processes, etc. The linguistic originality of material culture is associated primarily with the naming of the world, at the same time, the linguistic originality of spiritual culture is associated with its comprehension : the languages of cult, art, science are aimed mainly at “revealing” the content, no matter whether it is emotional or mental, but embodied with maximum adequacy; their essence lies in the flexibility of expressive means, even if sometimes at the expense of their intelligibility: neither a priest, nor a poet, nor a scientist will sacrifice precision of expression in the name of ease of perception. In turn, the literary language is always ready to prefer the widest possible transmission of meaning to the expression of meaning: here the dissemination of information is of paramount importance, and therefore the moment of universality, all-accessibility, and all-intelligibility is of particular importance.
The second most important quality of a literary language is its versatility. It is connected with the claim of the literary language to popularize almost any content using its own means (despite the likely losses). The languages of spiritual and material culture lack this ability: in particular, the meaning of the liturgy is inexpressible in the language of mathematical science, and vice versa. This is explained by the increased semanticity of the form, which initially limits the content: special languages were created to express special, non-everyday semantics, and it was precisely for a certain type of meaning that the corresponding means of expression turned out to be best suited. On the contrary, the literary language turns out to be indifferent, neutral in relation to the conveyed meanings. He is only interested in normative lexical and grammatical meanings- this is the most semiotic (conventional) manifestation of the national language. Thus, special sociocultural languages relate to the language of official life as semantically marked - semantically neutral. In the languages of material culture, the denotative pole of the sign is strengthened and the significative pole is weakened: the emphasis is on the signified. In the languages of spiritual culture, on the contrary, the significative pole of the sign is strengthened and the denotative one is weakened: the emphasis is on the signifier (the latter is especially characteristic of religious mythology, non-realistic art and mathematical science). Fundamental difference in the structure of “material” and “spiritual” signs is clearly visible from the comparison of technical nomenclature and scientific terminology: one is objective, the other is conceptual. Literary language occupies a neutral position on this coordinate axis, being a certain point of reference: denotation and signification are more or less balanced in it.
G.O. Vinokur argued that “we should talk about different languages, depending on the function that the language performs” (G.O. Vinokur. What should scientific poetics be). However, special cultural languages, in addition to functional-semantic ones, certainly have some formal linguistic differences from the literary language - this is the only reason we have the right to talk about different functional languages, and not about different functions of the same language. The most striking (but not the only) feature of the languages of material culture has already been mentioned: their dialects know the names of hundreds of thousands of objects and their details, the existence of which the average speaker of a literary language is not aware of. Even more significant are the differences between the literary language and the languages of spiritual culture, as the language of Russian Orthodox worship - Church Slavonic - has a number of structural features that contrast it with the Russian literary language at all levels; In addition, this sacred language also includes individual unassimilated formula words from other languages: Hebrew and Greek. In the extreme, the language of a cult can even be artificial” (in whole or in part) - such, for example, are the glossolalia of Russian sectarianism. The language of fiction also has systemic differences with the literary language, affecting phonetics, morphology, syntax, word formation, vocabulary and phraseology; in addition to this, the language of verbal art allows any distortion of national speech and accepts any foreign language inserts: works of national literature can be created in a “foreign” language, living or dead, “natural” or “artificial” (like futuristic or Dadaist abunction). Finally, the language of science is always different from the literary language in its terminology, i.e. vocabulary and phraseology), almost always - word formation, often - syntax, punctuation and special graphics, sometimes - inflection and accentology. It is characteristic that most signs specific to the language of a particular science are usually international. This is enough to typologically contrast the language of science with the literary language and bring it closer to the language of art: like the latter, the language of science is fundamentally macaronic (cf. Macaronic poetry), for it is capable, within a single system, of organically combining various complementary languages, not only “natural”, but also “artificial”: the language of formulas, graphs, tables, etc.
All this allows us to characterize the described language situation as sociocultural multilingualism. The multifunctional language of official life competes with the special languages of spiritual and material culture: it is oriented “in breadth”, they are oriented “in depth”. Each of the special languages allows for inaccurate translation into the language of everyday life and has its own substitute in it - a certain “ functional style» literary language. While winning in quantity, the literary language plays with quality: it copes with each special function worse than the corresponding language of spiritual or material culture. The emergence of such multilingualism, in which special idioms are concentrated around a national literary language, is a long process that took almost four centuries on Russian soil (15-18 centuries). He combined two main tendencies that seem to be in opposite directions, but in reality constitute different sides a single historical movement. The first is associated with the consistent differentiation of the Old Russian language continuum, from which special languages gradually emerged that satisfy the diverse needs of cultural activity. The most important stage along this path was the autonomization of the language of the church: as a result of the “second” and “third South Slavic influence” Church Slavonic language, artificially “archaized” and “Hellenized”, moved far away from Russian and forever lost its general intelligibility; many forms and grammatical categories, lost by the Russian language over eight centuries, were artificially preserved in the language of the cult. The second trend is associated with the formation of the language of official life, which was formed through the integration of linguistic elements characteristic of the most different levels of the genre-hierarchical system of the Russian Middle Ages. The synthesis of Russian and Church Slavonic principles at various levels was of decisive importance in the history of the universal language of national communication. The completion of this process occurred in the second half of the 18th century, when the most important codifications of both languages coincided with the withering away of the “hybrid (simplified) Church Slavonic”, and an irreparable gap formed in the “Slavic Russian” language continuum.
In modern linguistics, one of the controversial topics is the question of the existence of a literary language in the pre-national period. Of course, if by literary language we mean the universal and multifunctional language of official life, then such a language in Ancient Rus' there wasn't at all. Opponents of this point of view, who claim that before the 18th century there was some other “literary language” with other characteristic features, should establish features that bring the “ancient literary language” closer to the modern one, at the same time contrasting both with all the others, “non-literary ", special cultural languages. But until such features are found, it is hardly advisable to use the same term to designate such dissimilar phenomena. When we talk about the oldest period of the existence of the written language in Rus', it is better to talk about its historical stylistics, and count the history of the Russian literary language from the post-Petrine era.
The direction and mechanisms of development of a literary language are determined by its purpose: its primary tasks include popularization, “repetition of what has been covered,” and a generally understandable (lightweight) retelling. By its nature, a literary language is passive, and the languages of spiritual culture are focused on active language creation: the main factor in their evolution is invention, while the main factor in the evolution of a literary language is selection. But what exactly to select and from where depends on the axiological status of various branches of spiritual and material creativity in at the moment development of society. Thus, in the 18th - first third of the 19th century, while Russian cultural figures well remembered “the usefulness of church books in the Russian language” (M.V. Lomonosov, 1758), one of the most important guidelines for the literary language remained the language of cult: for a whole century, Church Slavonic grammar played the role of “regulatory orthographic and morphological principle in relation to the Russian literary language” (History of Russian literature), and church stylistics influenced purely everyday genres of writing. Starting from last decade In the 18th century, the decisive role in organizing the language of everyday life began to shift to literature (suffice it to say about the influence of Karamzin: his syntax, vocabulary and semantics, as well as the normalizing value of Karamzin’s orthography). The new state of affairs persisted for more than a century: the last noticeable influence on the literary language from the language of fiction was the actualization of unproductive and unproductive word-formation models, first in the language of the futurists, and then in the general literary language (“explosion” of abbreviations). The sociolinguistic processes of the 20th century, which had been preparing since the middle of the previous century, took place mainly under the sign of the general literary assimilation of some specific phenomena of the language of science.
A linguistic situation structured by literary language cannot be considered one of the cultural universals: it finally took shape relatively late, in modern times, and already in our days has come under attack from the ideology of postmodernism, the main strategy of which is to blur the lines between spiritual culture and everyday life. This strategy leads to the destruction of the system of sociocultural multilingualism, including the disappearance of the standard literary language as a prestigious norm of linguistic use, universally binding, at least within the framework of official life. The degradation of the literary language today is reflected not only in the indifference of many media to the requirements of grammar and dictionaries; No less symptomatic are “unparliamentary expressions” in the mouths of parliamentarians or the penetration of criminal jargon into the language of the head of state.
Share:Table of contents
Introduction……………………………………………………………………….1
Literary language…………………………………………………………….2
Dialect, jargon, argotism…………………………………………………….4
Book and literary spoken language……………………………...6
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….8
References……………………………………………………………...9
Introduction
“Language is created by the people,” said A.M. Gorky.- The division of a language into literary and folk means only that we have, so to speak, a “raw” language and one processed by masters. The first who perfectly understood this was Pushkin, he was the first to show how to use the speech material of the people, how to process it.”
So what is literary language? There is a clear definition of this phrase.
Literary language is basically a national language, processed and creatively enriched by masters of words, therefore it must be considered as the highest achievement of the speech culture of the people. This is the highest form of general vernacular, the result of the speech creativity of the entire people, led by its outstanding masters of words. The means and norms of literary expression are not only created by all native speakers, but - what is very important - are carefully and carefully protected by society as a great cultural value. The activity of the masters of words, as it were, leads and crowns this entire creative process.
But such rigor in defining the greatest Russian language is unthinkable. For many centuries, great Russian poets tried to give a literary touch to the everyday Russian language.
In our work, the goal is to consider the emergence of the term “literary language”, its changes over time and its varieties.
Literary language
Literary language - common language the written language of one or another people, and sometimes several peoples - the language of official business documents, school teaching, written and everyday communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form, often written, but sometimes oral. That is why there are differences between written-book and oral-spoken forms of literary language, the emergence, correlation and interaction of which are subject to certain historical patterns.
It is difficult to point out another linguistic phenomenon that would be understood as differently as literary language. Some are convinced that the literary language is the same national language, only “polished” by masters of the language, i.e. writers, word artists; Proponents of this view, first of all, have in mind the literary language of modern times and, moreover, among peoples with a rich literary literature. Others believe that literary language is a written language, a bookish language, opposed to living speech, spoken language. Still others believe that a literary language is a language that is generally significant for a given people, in contrast to dialect and jargon, which do not have signs of such universal significance. Supporters of this view sometimes argue that a literary language can exist in the preliterate period as the language of folk verbal and poetic creativity or customary law.
The presence of different understandings of the phenomenon denoted by the term “literary language” indicates an insufficient disclosure by science of the specifics of this phenomenon, its place in the general system of language, its function, and its social role. Meanwhile, despite all the differences in the understanding of this phenomenon, the literary language is a linguistic reality that is not subject to any doubt. Literary language is a means of developing social life, material and spiritual progress of a given people, an instrument of social struggle, as well as a means of educating the masses and introducing them to the achievements of national culture, science and technology. Literary language is always the result of collective creative activity.
The study of a literary language, no matter how it is understood, entails the study of such phenomena as “dialects”, “jargons”, on the one hand, “spoken language”, “written language” - on the other, linguistic, speech and literary “style” " - from the third. The study of a literary language is closely connected with the study of literature, the history of language, and the cultural history of a given people. Given some historical uncertainty in understanding the essence of the literary language, it is one of the most effective tools of education and is in contact with the tasks of education and school. All this testifies to the paramount scientific and practical importance of the problem of literary language. 1
Literary language can be divided into territorial language (dialects), social language (jargon, vernacular), and professional language (argotism). It is also worth highlighting the division of the literary language into varieties; book literary language and spoken literary language.
Dialect, jargon and argotism
Dialect – (from the Greek “to speak, to express”) a type of language that is used as a means of communication between people connected by the same territory. A dialect is a complete system of speech communication (oral or signed, but not necessarily written) with its own vocabulary and grammar. Traditionally, dialects were understood primarily as rural territorial dialects.
In sociolinguistics and at the everyday level, dialects are contrasted with the standard or literary language. From this point of view, the dialect is characterized by the following features:
- social, age and partly gender limitations of the circle of speakers of the dialect (in Russia these are mainly rural residents of the older generation);
limiting the scope of use of the dialect to family and everyday situations;
the formation of semi-dialects as a result of the interaction and mutual influence of various dialects and the associated restructuring of relations between the elements of dialect systems;
leveling out the uniqueness of dialectal speech under the influence of the literary language (through the media, books, education system, etc.) and the emergence of intermediate forms - for example, dialectally colored literary speech.
Jargon is a social dialect; different from the general spoken language specific vocabulary and phraseology, expressiveness of turns and special use of word-formation means, but does not have its own phonetic and grammatical system. Part of the slang vocabulary belongs not to one, but to many (including those that have already disappeared) social groups. Moving from one jargon to another, the words of their “common fund” can change form and meaning: “to darken” in the slang - “to hide the loot”, then - “to be cunning (during interrogation)”, in modern youth jargon - “to speak unclearly, to evade from the answer."
The main function of jargon is to express membership in a relatively autonomous social group through the use of specific words, forms and expressions. Sometimes the term jargon is used to refer to distorted, incorrect speech. The jargon vocabulary is built on the basis of the literary language through rethinking, metaphorization, redesign, sound truncation, etc., as well as the active assimilation of foreign words and morphemes. For example: cool - “fashionable”, “business”, hut - “apartment”, bucks - “dollars”, wheelbarrow - “car”, jerk - “go”, basketball - “basketball”, dude - “guy” from the gypsy language . In modern language, jargon has become widespread, especially in the language of youth (youth slang). Social jargon first appeared in the 18th century among the nobles (“salon” jargon) (example: “plaisir” - pleasure).
Argotisms (French, singular argotisme), words and expressions of colloquial speech, borrowed from various social and professional dialects. In a semantically transformed form they are used in colloquial speech and slang, preserving their bright expressive coloring. In the language of fiction, argotisms are used as a means of stylistic characterization, mainly in the speech of characters, as well as in the author’s speech in a “fairy tale” manner of narration.
Book and spoken literary language
Book language is an achievement and heritage of culture. He is the main keeper and transmitter of cultural information. All types of indirect (distant) communication are carried out by means of book language. Scientific works, artistic and educational literature, diplomatic and business correspondence, newspaper and magazine products and much more cannot be imagined without bookish and literary language. Its functions are enormous and become even more complex with the development of civilization. The modern Russian book and literary language is a powerful tool of communication. It contains all the means necessary for a variety of communication purposes, and, above all, for the expression of abstract concepts and relationships.
The complex connections traced by scientists and writers in the material and spiritual world are described in scientific language. Oral, colloquial speech is not suitable for this: it is impossible to transmit from mouth to mouth syntactically cumbersome texts, rich in special terminology and complex in semantic terms. The property of book-written speech to preserve the text and thereby strengthen the ability of the literary language to be a connection between generations is one of the main properties of the book language.
A colloquial variety of literary language, used in various types of everyday relationships between people, subject to ease of communication. Conversational speech is distinguished from bookish and written speech not only by its form (this is oral and, moreover, predominantly dialogical speech), but also by such features as unpreparedness, unplanning, spontaneousness (compare, for example, with reading a report, the text of which is written in advance), immediacy of contact between participants in communication.
The spoken variety of the literary language, unlike the bookish and written one, is not subject to targeted normalization, but it has certain norms as a result of speech tradition. This type of literary language is not so clearly divided into speech genres. However, here, too, various speech features can be distinguished - depending on the conditions in which communication takes place, on the relationship of the participants in the conversation, etc. compare, for example, a conversation between friends, colleagues, a conversation at a table, a conversation between an adult and a child, a dialogue between a seller and a buyer etc.
Conclusion
The splendor of the Russian language is famous among all nations. As for the term “literary language,” one of its disadvantages is a certain ambiguity - the possibility of using it in two meanings: as a designation of the language of fiction and as a designation of a processed form of language.
On the other hand, the unchanging and constant quality of a literary language, which always distinguishes it from other forms of existence of a language and most fully expresses its specificity, is the processing of language and the selection and relative regulation associated with it.
We have introduced several varieties of literary language:
- Dialect,
Jargon,
Argotism,
Book literary language,
Spoken literary language.
References
1.
Vinogradov V.V. “Selected works. History of the Russian literary language" - M., 1978. - P. 288-297
2.
Shakhmatov A. A. “Essay on the modern Russian literary language” - M., 1941.
For a long time, there was an opinion among linguists that every literary language is a purely artificial formation. Some scientists even compared it to a greenhouse plant. It was believed that literary language is far from living (natural) language and therefore is not of significant interest to science. Now such views are completely outdated. Literary language, being a product of long and complex historical development, is organically connected with folk basis. The words of M. Gorky are often quoted that “the division of language into literary and folk means only that we have, so to speak, a “raw” language and one processed by masters” (On How I Learned to Write, 1928). True, at the same time, sometimes the circle of people who are called “masters of words” is narrowed down, meaning exclusively writers and scientists. In reality, public figures, publicists, teachers and other representatives of the Russian intelligentsia also take part in the process of processing the folk language. Although, of course, the role of writers and poets in this matter is most significant.
A literary language is the historically established highest (exemplary, processed) form of the national language, which has a rich lexical fund, an ordered grammatical structure and developed system styles. Converging at different stages of its development with either the book-written or spoken-oral form of speech, the Russian literary language has never been something artificial and completely alien to the folk language. At the same time, one cannot put an equal sign between them. Literary language has special properties. Among its main features are the following:
- the presence of certain norms (rules) of word usage, stress, pronunciation, etc. (moreover, norms that are more strict than, say, in dialects), compliance with which is generally binding, regardless of the social, professional and territorial affiliation of the speakers of a given language;
- the desire for sustainability, for the preservation of the general cultural heritage and literary and book traditions;
- fitness not only to designate the entire amount of knowledge accumulated by humanity, but also to implement the abstract, logical thinking;
- stylistic richness, consisting in an abundance of functionally justified variant and synonymous means, which makes it possible to achieve the most effective expression of thought in various speech situations.
More on the topic LITERARY LANGUAGE AND ITS PROPERTIES:
- modern Russian language. National language and forms of its existence. Literary language as the highest form of the national language.
- Chapter 1. MODERN RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE AND ITS STYLES
- Multifunctionality of the Russian language: the Russian language as a means of serving all spheres and types of communication of the Russian people. Literary language and the language of fiction.
- Russian national (popular) language. Stratification of the common language. Codified literary language and extraliterary varieties.
Forms of existence of language. Literary language. Stylistic resources of the Russian literary language Functional styles.
Literary language– the highest (model and processed) form of the national language. According to its cultural and social status literary language is opposed to territorial dialects, vernacular, social and professional jargons, and slang. Literary language is formed in the process of language development, therefore it is a historical category. Literary language is the language of culture; it is formed when high level its development. Literary works are created in a literary language, and cultural people also speak. Borrowed words, jargon, cliches, clericalism, etc. clog the language. Therefore, there is codification (the creation of norms), creating order and preserving the purity of the language, showing a pattern. The norms are enshrined in dictionaries of the modern Russian language and grammar reference books. The modern Russian literary language is at a high stage of its development; as a developed language, it has an extensive system of styles.
The process of formation and development of the national literary language is characterized by a tendency to expand its social base and bring closer the book-written and folk-spoken styles. It is no coincidence that the Russian literary language, in a broad sense, is defined in time from A.S. Pushkin to the present day: it was A.S. Pushkin who brought together the colloquial and literary languages, placing the language of the people as the basis for various styles of literary speech. I. S. Turgenev, in a speech about Pushkin, pointed out that Pushkin “alone had to complete two works, which in other countries were separated by a whole century or more, namely: to establish a language and create literature.” Here it should be noted the enormous influence that outstanding writers in general have on the formation of the national literary language. A significant contribution to the development of the English literary language was made by W. Shakespeare, Ukrainian by T. G. Shevchenko, etc. For the development of the Russian literary language, the work of N. M. Karamzin, about whom A. S. Pushkin spoke in particular, became important. According to him, this glorious Russian historian and writer “turned it (the language) to the living sources of the folk word.” In general, all Russian classic writers (N.V. Gogol, N.A. Nekrasov, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov, etc.) participated to one degree or another in the development of the modern Russian literary language.
The literary language is usually the national language. It is based on some pre-existing form of language, usually a dialect. The formation of a literary language during the formation of a nation usually occurs on the basis of one of the dialects - the dialect of the main political, economic, cultural, administrative, and religious center of the country. This dialect is a synthesis of various dialects (Urban Koine). For example, the Russian literary language was formed on the basis of the Moscow dialect. Sometimes the basis of the literary language becomes a supra-dialectal formation, for example, the language of the royal court, as in France. The Russian literary language had several sources, among them we note the Church Slavonic language, the Moscow official language (the business state language of Moscow Rus'), dialects (especially the Moscow dialect), and the languages of great Russian writers. The significance of the Church Slavonic language in the formation of the Russian literary language was noted by many historians and linguists, in particular L. V. Shcherba in the article “Modern Russian Literary Language” said: “If the Russian literary language had not grown up in the atmosphere of Church Slavonic, then that wonderful poem would have been unthinkable Pushkin’s “The Prophet,” which we still admire to this day.” Speaking about the sources of the modern Russian literary language, it is important to say about the activities of the first teachers Slavic Kirill and Methodius, their creation of Slavic writing, translation of liturgical books, on which many generations of Russian people were brought up. Initially, our Russian written culture was Christian; the first books in Slavic languages were translations of the Gospel, Psalter, Acts of the Apostles, Apocrypha, etc. The Russian literary tradition is based on Orthodox culture, which undoubtedly affected not only works of fiction, but also the literary language.
“The foundations for the normalization of the Russian literary language were laid by the great Russian scientist and poet M. V. Lomonosov. Lomonosov combines in the concept of the “Russian language” all varieties of Russian speech - command language, living oral speech with its regional variations, styles of folk poetry - and recognizes the forms of the Russian language as the constructive basis of the literary language, at least two (out of three) of its main styles." (Vinogradov V.V. “The main stages of the history of the Russian language”).
The literary language in any state is distributed through schools, where children are taught in accordance with literary norms. For many centuries, the Church also played a major role here.
The concepts of literary language and the language of fiction are not identical, since literary language covers not only the language of fiction, but also other implementations of language: journalism, science, public administration, oratory, and some forms of colloquial speech. The language of fiction in linguistics is considered as a broader concept for the reason that in works of art may include both literary linguistic forms and elements of territorial and social dialects, jargon, argot, and vernacular.
Main features of a literary language:
The presence of certain norms (rules) of word usage, stress, pronunciation, etc. (moreover, the norms are stricter than in dialects), compliance with these norms is generally binding, regardless of the social, professional and territorial affiliation of the speakers of a given language;
The desire for sustainability, for the preservation of general cultural heritage and literary and book traditions;
The adaptability of literary language to denote the entire amount of knowledge accumulated by humanity and to the implementation of abstract, logical thinking;
Stylistic richness, which consists in an abundance of synonymous means that allow one to achieve the most effective expression of thought in various speech situations.
The means of literary language appeared as a result of a long and skillful selection of the most accurate and significant words and phrases, the most appropriate grammatical forms and constructions.
The main difference between the literary language and other varieties of the national language is its strict normativity.
Let's turn to such varieties of the national language as dialect, vernacular, jargon, argot and slang, and try to identify their features.
Dialect(from the Greek dialektos - conversation, dialect, adverb) - a type of a certain language used as communication by persons connected by a close territorial, social or professional community. There are territorial and social dialects.
Territorial dialect- part of a single language, a really existing variety of it; contrasted with other dialects. The territorial dialect has differences in sound structure, grammar, word formation, and vocabulary. These differences can be small (as in Slavic languages), then people speaking different dialects understand each other. The dialects of languages such as German, Chinese, and Ukrainian are very different from each other, so communication between people speaking such dialects is difficult or impossible. Examples: pan (Eastern Ukraine) – patennya (Western Ukraine); names of stork in different parts of Ukraine: blacktail , leleka ,bociun , Botsyan etc.
Territorial dialect is defined as a means of communication between the population of a historically established region with specific ethnographic characteristics.
Modern dialects are the result of centuries of development. Throughout history, due to changes in territorial associations, fragmentation, unification, and regrouping of dialects occur. The most active formation of dialects occurred during the era of feudalism. With the overcoming of territorial fragmentation, old territorial boundaries within the state are being broken, and dialects are becoming closer together.
Changes in different eras relationships between dialects and literary language. Monuments of feudal times, written on the basis of the vernacular, reflect local dialect features.
Social dialects– languages of certain social groups. For example, the professional languages of hunters, fishermen, potters, traders, group jargons or slangs of pupils, students, athletes, soldiers, etc., mainly youth groups, differ from the national language only in vocabulary, secret languages, the argot of declassed elements.
Social dialects also include variants of the language of certain economic, caste, religious, etc. that differ from the national language. population groups.
Professionalisms- words and phrases characteristic of people of one profession and which, unlike terms, are semi-official names of concepts of a given profession. Professionalisms are distinguished by great differentiation in the designation of special concepts, objects, actions related to a given profession, type of activity. These, for example, are the names used by hunters for some of the properties of dogs: appetizing, polite, upper instinct, viscosity, deep crawling, smoky, unhearing, tearing, perek, walking, urge, toughness etc.
Vernacular– a colloquial language, one of the forms of the national language, which represents the oral non-codified (non-normative) sphere of national speech communication. Vernacular speech has a supra-dialectal character. Unlike dialects and jargons, speech that is generally understandable for speakers of the national language exists in every language and is communicatively significant for all speakers of the national language.
Vernacular is contrasted with literary language. Units of all language levels are represented in common parlance.
The contrast between literary language and vernacular can be traced in the area of stress:
percent(spacious) – percent(lit.),
agreement(spacious) – CONTRACTS(lit.),
deepen(space.) – deepen(lit.),
Ringing(spacious) – It's calling(lit.),
bookend(spacious) – Endpaper(lit.) etc.
In the area of pronunciation:
[right now] (spacious) – [ Now] (lit.),
[pshol] (spacious) – [ pashol] (lit.)
In the field of morphology:
want(spacious) – want(lit.),
choice(spacious) – elections(lit.),
ride(space.) – drive(lit.),
theirs(spacious) – their(lit.),
here(spacious) – Here(lit.)
Common speech is characterized by expressively “lowered” evaluative words with a range of shades from familiarity to rudeness, for which there are neutral synonyms in the literary language:
« shy away» – « hit»
« blurt out» – « say»
« sleep» – « sleep»
« drag» – « run away»
Vernacular is a historically developed speech system. In the Russian language, the vernacular arose on the basis of the Moscow colloquial Koine. The formation and development of vernacular speech is associated with the formation of the Russian national language. The word itself was formed from what was used in the 16th-17th centuries. phrases " simple speech"(speech of a commoner).
Colloquial vocabulary, from one point of view, is an area of illiterate speech that is entirely outside the boundaries of the literary language and does not represent a unified system. Examples: mother, nurse, clothes, cologne, business(with a negative value), slimy, ailing, spin around, be angry, from afar, the other day.
From another point of view, colloquial vocabulary is words that have a bright, reduced stylistic coloring. These words make up two groups: 1) everyday vernacular, words that are part of the literary language and have a reduced (compared to colloquial words) expressive and stylistic coloring. Examples: dunce, carrion, slap, tattered, fat-bellied, sleep, yell, foolishly; 2) rude, vulgar vocabulary (vulgarisms), located outside the boundaries of the literary language: bastard, bitch, rude, mug, vile, slam etc.
There is also literary vernacular, which serves as the border between the literary language and the colloquial language, is a special stylistic layer of words, phraseological units, forms, figures of speech, endowed with a bright expressive coloring of “lowness”. The norm of their use is that they are allowed into the literary language with limited stylistic tasks: as a means of socio-verbal characterization of characters, for a “reduced” expressive characterization of persons, objects, events. Literary vernacular includes only those speech elements that have become entrenched in the literary language as a result of their long-term use in literary texts, after a long selection, semantic and stylistic processing. The composition of literary vernacular is fluid and constantly updated; many words and expressions have acquired the status of “colloquial” and even “bookish,” for example: “ everything will work out», « whiner», « nerd».
Conversational vocabulary- words that have a slightly reduced (compared to neutral vocabulary) stylistic coloring and are characteristic of spoken language, i.e. the oral form of a literary language, speaking in conditions of relaxed, unprepared communication. Colloquial vocabulary includes some nouns with suffixes - ah, – tai, – street(s), – un, – w(a)), – ysh, – yag(a), – yak etc. ( bearded man, lazy man, dirty guy, loudmouth, conductor, baby, poor fellow, fat man); some adjectives with suffixes – ast–, – at–,
–ovat – ( toothy, hairy, reddish); a series of verbs in - nothing(to be sarcastic, to be fashionable); some verbs with prefixes for –, on– and postfix – Xia(to chat, to look into, to pile on, to visit); nouns and verbs formed from phrases: free rider< without a ticket, record book < grade book, bulletin < be on the ballot, as well as many others. In dictionaries these words are marked “colloquial”. All of them are uncommon in official business and scientific styles.
Jargon- a type of speech used in communication (usually oral) by a separate relatively stable social group, uniting people based on profession (jargon of drivers, programmers), position in society (jargon of the Russian nobility in the 19th century), interests (jargon of philatelists) or age (youth jargon). Jargon differs from the common language by its specific vocabulary and phraseology and the special use of word-formation devices. Part of the slang vocabulary belongs not to one, but to many (including disappeared) social groups. Moving from one jargon to another, the words "common fund" can change form and meaning. Examples: " darken"in argo - " hide the loot", later - " be cunning"(during interrogation), in modern youth slang - " speak unclearly But", " prevaricate».
The vocabulary of jargon is replenished in different ways:
due to borrowings from other languages:
dude- guy (gym)
head- bash in Tatar word head
shoes– shoes from shoes (English)
ban(computer jargon) - a software ban on the use of a certain Internet resource, imposed by the administrator from English. to ban: expel, exile
hustle – play computer games from English. game
pin - play computer games from him. spiel
by abbreviations:
basketball– basketball
liters– literature
physical education- physical training
zaruba– foreign literature
diser– dissertation
by rethinking common words:
« jerk" - go
« unfasten» – give part of the money
« wheelbarrow» – car
Jargon can be open or closed. According to O. Jespersen, in open groups(youth) jargon is a group game. In closed groups, jargon is also a signal that distinguishes friend and foe, and sometimes a means of conspiracy (secret language).
Jargon expressions are quickly replaced by new ones:
50-60s of the twentieth century: money - tugriks
70s of the twentieth century money - coins, money(s)
80s of the twentieth century and in present moment – money, green, cabbage etc.
Jargon vocabulary penetrates into the literary language through vernacular and the language of fiction, where it is used as a means of speech characterization.
Jargon is a means of contrasting oneself with the rest of society.
Argo- a special language of a limited social or professional group, consisting of arbitrarily selected modified elements of one or more natural language. Argo is used more often as a means of hiding objects of communication, as well as as a means of isolating a group from the rest of society. Argo is considered a means of communication among declassed elements, common among the underworld (thieves' argot, etc.).
The basis of argot is a specific vocabulary that widely includes foreign language elements (in Russian - Gypsy, German, English). Examples:
Fenya- language
feather - knife
tail - surveillance
stand on guard, stand on the lookout - stand guard during the commission of a crime, warning of approaching danger
bucks– dollars, foreign currency
in kind- Right
settling tank– the place where pre-sale preparation of a stolen car is carried out
move with your girl- steal a car
box- garage
registration– illegal connection to the car’s security system
great-grandfather - Land Cruiser Prada
work as a horse - transport the loot from the owner's apartment.
Slang– 1) the same as jargon, slang is more often used in relation to the jargon of English-speaking countries; 2) a set of jargon that makes up a layer of colloquial speech, reflecting a familiar, sometimes humorous attitude towards the subject of speech. Used in casual communication: mura, dregs, blat, buzz.
Elements of slang quickly disappear, being replaced by others, sometimes passing into the literary language, leading to the emergence of semantic and stylistic differences.
The main problems of the modern Russian language in the communicative sphere: obscene vocabulary (foul language), unjustified borrowings, jargon, argotisms, vulgarisms.
