Yuzhannikov Vladislav
5 A class, MBOU "Secondary School No. 31"
Kanifatova Alena Alexandrovna
scientific supervisor, teacher of Russian language and literature,Novokuznetsk
There are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet. Most of these letters have their own sound designation, and sometimes not one, but two. For example, in the word CONFERENCE, the letter E is present in both the second and third syllables, but in the second syllable, in a weak position without stress, we pronounce the vowel sound I, and in the third syllable, with stress, the sound E. A special place among all letters is occupied by soft and hard signs, since they do not produce sounds. These letters have their own special roles in words. So we know that the letter b (soft sign) serves to indicate the softness of a consonant sound (salt, coat), and also performs a separate function (blizzard, ants). In contrast to this letter, the role of the solid sign is assigned a small one. It serves as a separation. The only letters that can be preceded by a hard sign are E, Ё, Yu and I (rasЪ e roam, sb e mka, raz I remove, lift yu bnik). However, lately In Russia, attempts are being made to use this letter for other purposes.
More and more often on the streets of our city we see signs with the names of some institutions, at the end of which there is a solid sign. For example, real estate agencies “Variant”, “Adres”, store “Lombard”, coffee “Petr”, magazine “Gatronom”, taxi “Yamshchik”, etc.
In this regard, the problem of this work is to find out: why in modern names The letter Ъ appears at the end of their names, what is the history of this letter.
The purpose of this study: trace the use of the letter Ъ in modern names from the point of view of its validity and significance.
In order to introduce children to letters, in modern alphabet books, for each letter, to make it easier for the child, not only a drawing, but also a short poem is offered. What can you write about solid sign? Let's look through a few of these books.
1. We know that there is both an entrance and an exit,
There is a rise, and there is an entrance,
We can't live without them,
Very important... (firm sign)
2. Announces Kommersant:
The beast is my enemy and the bird is my enemy!
I'd rather hide in the entrance
And no one will eat me!
3. I can’t find it in any way
There is a solid sign at the zoo.
I don't know these animals.
Help me, friends!
In the poem by Danish K. about the solid sign, the stanza caught my attention:
Used to be an important person
He was held in high esteem under the king,
He's in almost every word
I visited and served.
The question arises: what service did the solid sign perform previously?
Turning to various sources, I found three main functions of this letter in the Old Russian language.
Thus, in the first Russian alphabet, created by the enlighteners, the brothers Cyril and Methodius, the letter Ъ (hard sign) was called EP and was the 29th letter, denoting an ultra-short vowel sound that is not pronounced. However, in writing, the use of this unpronounceable letter was quite useful: it helped to correctly break the line into words (before moving on to using spaces): For example: to God's chosen king.
But it should be noted that this hypothesis in no way justifies the appearance of this letter in modern names. Since, according to my observations, this sign is found in proper names consisting of only one word (“Admiral”, “Tavern”, “Gastronom”). In addition, as already mentioned, this letter played the role of an ultra-short vowel sound. In Russian, the vowel sound is the syllable-forming sound, so there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels: aria(3 syllables), lighthouse(2 syllables), flight(1 syllable). Syllables can be open (end with a vowel) or closed (end with a consonant). For example, in the word ko-ro-na all syllables are open, but in the word ar-buz both syllables are closed.
A characteristic feature of syllable division in the Old Russian language was that it obeyed the law of the open syllable, as a result of which all syllables were open, that is, they ended in a vowel sound. The law of the open syllable determined the fact that in the Old Russian language there could not be consonants at the end of a word, since in this case the syllable would be closed. Therefore, at the end of words ending in consonants they wrote b (er).
Let us trace this on the material under study. “Traktir”, coffee “Admiral”, store “Lombard”, coffee “Peter”, magazine “Gastronom”, taxi “Yamshchik”, real estate agencies “Variant” and “Adres”... Indeed, in all cases this letter is written at the end of the word , after a consonant sound, in this case the modern closed syllable turns into an open one.
The famous Russian linguist Lev Vasilyevich Uspensky (1900-1978) in his book “A Word about Words” calls the hard sign “the most expensive letter in the world.” Since, in his opinion, “he did not help anything, did not express anything, did absolutely nothing.” And in some texts this sign was used more often than other vowels. Let us trace this in an excerpt from the ancient Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years.”
In total, this text contains 144 words, which account for 31 er; practically, this sign is written in every fourth word, and in some words it appears twice. For example: asked, entered, sorcerer.
The Soviet government also noticed the meaningless use of this sign, which greatly increased the text and, accordingly, printing costs. Therefore, according to the Decree “On the Introduction of a New Spelling” (1918), the letter Ъ (er) was excluded from the Russian alphabet. There is no longer anything to mean for the “dividing er” in the middle of words. They came up with a replacement: in its place they began to put an apostrophe (superscript comma) or quotation marks after the preceding letter. In August 1928, the government recognized the use of an apostrophe in the middle of a word instead of the letter “hard sign” as unusual for Russian grammar. In modern Russian spelling, Ъ (hard sign) is used only as a separator between a consonant and a vowel. Most often used at the junction of a prefix and a root (announcement, entrance), as well as in some borrowed words (adjutant, injection) and in two adjacent full (not abbreviated!) stems in difficult words(three-tier).
It should be noted that in the Old Russian language, in addition to two functions (space and syllable formation), the letter Ъ (er) had a third function - indicator masculine. It was written after consonants at the end of nouns (Oleg, kudesnik, lob), in masculine past tense verbs (put, died), and also in short adjectives masculine (lob gol, prince is beautiful). When he disappeared from this position, the masculine gender began to be defined by a graphic zero in contrast to the feminine (book - table).
Does Ъ (hard sign) perform this function in modern names? “Traktir”, coffee “Admiral”, store “Lombard”, coffee “Peter”, magazine “Gastronom”, taxi “Yamshchik”, real estate agencies “Variant” and “Adres”... Indeed, all these are masculine nouns.
Consequently, based on the studied material, the appearance of the letter Ъ (a hard sign) in the modern names of various institutions can be justified from the point of view of the history of this letter. Firstly, as an ultra-short vowel sound that transforms closed syllable in the open. Secondly, in all these words the hard sign is also an indicator of the masculine gender, according to the laws of the Old Russian language.
But did the entrepreneurs who added this letter to the names of their companies know these facts? I addressed this question to entrepreneurs and employees of these institutions. A total of 14 people were interviewed. Of these, only 3 people know that this was once a vowel letter, 12 people know that this letter was written at the end of masculine nouns. When asked what they were guided by when adding Ъ (hard sign) after hard consonants, they unanimously answered that these are commercial ploys that serve to create a certain image of a product or institution, which is intended to emphasize the good quality of the enterprise, using a stable idea: “pre-revolutionary (old) " = "good".
In our city there are a number of stores whose names may have a solid sign at the end of the word: “Cosmos”, “Sapphire”, “Stimul”, “Comfort”, “Zenith”, “Visit”, “Phoenix”, “Topaz” . I hope that in the future, if entrepreneurs want to add the letter Ъ (firm sign) to the names of their companies and institutions, it will not be just a tribute to fashion or a commercial move, but a historically based decision.
References:
- Gorshkov A.I. All the richness, strength and flexibility of our language. A.S. Pushkin in the history of the Russian language: A book for extracurricular reading for students - M.: Education, 1993. - 176 pp.: ill. - ISBN5-09-003452-4.
- Gorbanevsky M.V. In the world of names and titles. - M.: Knowledge, 1983. - 192 p.
- Russian language. Theoretical description. Tutorial for students of the specialty “Russian language and literature” Kuibyshev, 2012: pp. 35-38
- Uspensky L.. A word about words. Essays on language, Children's literature, 1971 http://royallib.ru
- [Electronic resource]. Access mode: URL: http://www.grafomanam.
- [Electronic resource]. Access mode: URL: http://ja-rastu.ru/poeme/azbuka/
- [Electronic resource]. Access mode: URL: http://ru.wikipedia
- [Electronic resource]. Access mode: URL:
Filming, entrance, hugs, announcement, detour, immense, disheveled, furious, move in, drive up, shrink, unite, ate.
CONTROL WRITTEN OFF
Write down suggestions. Underline words with a hard separator (ъ).
1. The leaves on the trees shrank due to frost. 2. Rosehip bushes seem to be on fire. 3. In the summer, I traveled all over Crimea with my parents. 4. We hugged each other tightly. 5. Quiet! Filming is underway. 6. Children from all over Ukraine came to the competition.
SELECTIVE DICTANT
Listen to the words. Write words with soft sign(b) in one
a column with a solid sign (ъ) - in another.
Sparrows, feathers, detour, drinks, ate, wolf, stakes, drive up, edible, announcement, health, leaves, shooting, friends, angry, edible, bunches, joy, blizzard.
EXPLANATORY AND TESTING DICTS
Separate highlighted words for hyphenation.
At night there was a fire in a neighboring house. A fiery blizzard broke out. Furious flames came out of the windows. We moved in together several fire engines. The first one stood at the entrance. The second drove around the house. The third entered the yard. Fountains of water flow. Smoke hurts your eyes. The fire gives up. The screams of firefighters can be heard. They saved people's lives and homes. You can't play with fire!
MUSHROOM GLADE
It's good to wander through the autumn forest!
There the fly agaric cap is turning red. This inedible mushroom. And here are my favorite boletus. There's a boletus showing off. And here are the red foxes. All these mushrooms are edible. Both people and animals love them. Have you ever seen eaten mushroom stems? This squirrel is cooking edible for the winter. She will feel comfortable in a warm hollow during a cold snowstorm.
EARLY AUTUMN
It’s still warm, but a thin cobweb is already hovering in the air. Bird voices can still be heard. Les thought. This is how a person thinks before departure on a long journey. Leaves coming soon will shrink, will fall. The blizzard will sweep away the paths. It will be like this all winter. And then the spring wind will announce that it is warming up.
44 words. (According to E. Gladchenko)
MORE ON THE TOPIC:
DICTIONARY AND CREATIVE DICTANTS 1. Translate Ukrainian words into Russian. 2.Put emphasis on words. Kropiva, otaman, conversation, shine...
DividingKommersantwritten after consonants before lettersI, Yu, Yo, E,conveying combinations [j] with vowels, in the following cases.
1. After prefixes ending in a consonant .
For example:
a) in words with Russian prefixes: non-nuclear, reveal, enraged, become enraged, worn out, interlingual, get fed up, go around, departure, lift, pre-anniversary, present, disperse, detachable, eat, shrink, sarcastic, supernatural, super-capacious, super-bright.
Letter ъ traditionally it is also written in the word flaw, Although from- is not a prefix in it.
b) in words with prefixes of foreign origin : counter-tier, post-nuclear, post-anniversary, subunit, subcore, superyacht, trans-European .
Words of foreign origin with initial parts are also written ab-, ad-, dis-, in-, inter-, con-, ob-, sub- , which in the source language are prefixes, but in the Russian language they are usually not distinguished as prefixes. These include: abjuration, adjective, adjectivation, adjunct, adjustage, adjutant, disjunction, injection, injected, interjection, coadjutor, conjecture, conjugates, conjugation, conjunctiva, conjunctiva, conjunctivitis, conjuncture, conjunction, object, objective, subject, subjective .
2. In complex words:
a) after the initial parts two-, three-, four- , For example: double-anchor, double-capacity, triple-core, quadruple-tier ;
b) in words pan-European, courier .
After the initial parts of compound words, a separator ъ traditionally it is not written, for example: military lawyer, state language, children, party cell, trade fair, special education, household unit, foreign language, Inyurkollegiya, Ministry of Justice.
3. The letter ъ is also written when transmitting foreign language proper names and words derived from them (after letters containing paired hard consonants), for example: Kizilyurt(city in Dagestan), Toryal(village in the Republic of Mari El), Guo Hengyu(Chinese personal name), Hengyang(city in China), Tazabagyab culture(archaeological), Jyväsjärvi(lake in Finland), Manyoshu(anthology of ancient Japanese poetry).
In this case, the separating ъ also possible before the letter And , For example: Junichiro(Japanese name).
Pay attention!
1) The letter ъ is not written before letters a, o, y, e, and, s.
For example: interatomic, counterstrike, transoceanic, three-story.
2) The letter ъ is not written in the middle of a word (not after a prefix!), for example: dress, clerk Exception – courier.
3) The letter ъ is not written at the junction of parts of a compound word.
For example: detyasli (nurseries), Inyaz (Institute of Foreign Languages).
4 ) The letter ъ is not written in a noun clerk(there is no prefix in this word under- !). A separator is written in the middle of the word b , since the prefix stands out here By- and the root dyak (-dyach-).
5) In the middle of a word (at the root) rearguard is written separating ь , not ъ , since prefixes ar- not in Russian.
6) In a word flaw (Turk.) written ъ by analogy with the verb take away.
Dividing b written after consonants before letters I, Yu, E, E, and, conveying combinations [j] with vowels.
For example:
- ya : devil, yudyachiy, monkey, billiards, family, drunk, ears of corn, draw, shepherd's, Lukyan;
-yu : loach, interview, pour, family, drink, trot, fifty, sew, fut(interjection);
- yo : nightingale, gun, drinking, crow, serious, life, whose, sewing;
-ye : premiere, play, courier, entertainer, jam, calm, Vietnam, Fourier;
-y : passerine, nightingales, pancakes, bearish, vary, articles, whose, Vigny.
1) The separating b is written in the middle of the word (not after the prefix!) after a consonant before letters e, e, yu, i, if after a consonant before a vowel it sounds [j]; for example: vVyot [v’jot], loach [v’jun], clerk [d’jak]).
2) The separative b is written in some borrowed words (as a sound signal [j]) after a consonant before a letter O.
For example: bouillon[bul'jon], sir[sin'jor], minion[min'jon].
The letter Ъ, ъ (referred to as a hard sign) is the 28th letter of the Russian alphabet (it was the 27th letter before the reform of 1917-1918 and bore the name “er”) and the 27th letter of the Bulgarian alphabet (called er golyam, i.e. “big er”); is absent in other Cyrillic Slavic alphabets: if necessary, its functions are performed by an apostrophe (Russian congress - Bel. z'ezd - Ukrainian. z'izd).
In the Church and Old Church Slavonic alphabets it is called “er” and “ѥръ” respectively; its meaning (as well as the meaning of the names of a number of other Cyrillic letters) is not clear. Usually in the Cyrillic alphabet it is 29th in order and has the form ; The 30th in the Glagolitic alphabet looks like . Has no numerical value.
The origin of the letter in the Glagolitic alphabet is usually interpreted as a modified letter O (); Cyrillic is also associated with O, to which something is drawn on top (such forms are found in the most ancient inscriptions in Cyrillic).
Church and Old Church Slavonic language
Approximately until the very middle of the 12th century. the letter Ъ denoted a reduced (super-short) vowel sound of medium rise. After the fall of the reduced ones occurred, any sound ceased to be designated in all Slavic languages except Bulgarian (in Bulgaria, in specific positions, a similar sound ɤ is still preserved, along with its designation using the letter Ъ: Bulgarian modern alphabet ).
But the use of this unpronounceable letter in writing turned out to be useful: it contributed to the correct division of words into syllables, and lines into words (until they switched to using spaces): to God's chosen king.
In later Church Slavonic writing it is used according to tradition:
Most often after consonants at the ends of words (i.e. a word can only end with a vowel, b, b or j);
As a sign of separation between a consonant and a vowel, located at the boundary of a prefix and a root;
In some words: monkey, after, as well as in all kinds of forms of phrases for each other, each other...
In a number of cases (mainly at the ends of prefixes and prepositions) er is replaced by a superscript called “erok”.
Kommersant in Russian
In 1917-1918, even before the reform of Russian spelling, the letter Ъ was used in accordance with the same Church Slavonic rules, but there were no exception words. The dividing Ъ (unlike modern spelling) was placed not only before iotized vowels, but also in a number of other cases, such as rasikatsya, sjekonomichet, dvuharshiny, etc. (including it made it possible to distinguish the words podarochny and gift in writing).
But the dividing Kommersant was very rare (however, as now), and the very useless Kommersant at the ends of words accounted for almost 4% of the total volume of the text and, as L.V. Uspensky calculated, before the reform of spelling, up to 8.5 were required annually for it million additional pages.
The redundancy of the terminal b has been known for a long time; it may not have been used in cursive writing, during the transmission of telegraph messages, and even in a number of books (printing without Kommersant spread in the 1870s, but was soon banned).
During the reform, b, which plays the role of a dividing sign, was preserved; but, in order to cope with the publishers of magazines and newspapers who did not want to comply with the decisions of the new government, the decree of the Supreme Council of National Economy of November 4, 1918 ordered the removal of matrices and letters of the letter B from printing desks, which was done.
The result was a spread in the form separator surrogate designation with an apostrophe (adjutant, rise); such writing began to be perceived as an element of reform, while in reality, from the positions set out in the decree, it was erroneous. There was a time (late 1920s - early 1930s) when it moved into book publishing, and, for example, in typewriting it has practically survived to this day (in order to save the number of keys, inexpensive typewriters were made without b).
In August 1928, the People's Commissariat for Education recognized the use of an apostrophe in Russian grammar instead of a hard sign in the middle of a word as incorrect.
Ъ in modern Russian spelling is used only as a sign of separation between a consonant and a vowel. It is most often used at the junctions of prefixes and roots (entrance, advert, trans-Yamal, pan-European), including historical prefixes “fused” in modern Russian with the root in a number of borrowings (adjutant, courier, injection); or in the case of 2 combined non-contracted (full!) stems before iotated e, yu, ё, i in such complex words as (“three-tiered”) and means “separate” (iotated) their sound without softening the previous consonant.
Before other vowels, Ъ can only appear in transcriptions of foreign names and names: Junichiro, Chang'an, etc.
The use of Ъ before consonants has also been noted (in the names of Khoisan languages: Kgan-Kune, Khong, etc.), although the correctness of such spellings in Russian orthography is questionable.
It cannot be used in complex words such as party cell, ministry of justice, foreign language.
Spelling variations
In the design of the letter Ъ, diversity is observed mainly in its size while maintaining its shape: it is in the line completely in the charter, in the half-chart it is both in the line and protrudes with its upper part upward, while covering the previous letter with it, but in width it takes up space less. This “high” form existed until the mid-century. XVIII century main and appeared in the first versions of the civil font.
The tall lowercase letter ъ in a number of variants of the civil font lost its hook, i.e. its form was identified with the Latin lowercase b (at the same time, the lowercase ь had a modern appearance).
In a number of semi-statutory manuscripts and early printed books (for example, in the “Ostrozh Bible” by I. Fedorov) one also comes across the letter Ъ with a serif going down to the bottom on the left (i.e., in the form of connected rъ), although more often a sign of a similar shape denoted the letter yat.
The famous Soviet-era linguist Lev Uspensky calls it the most expensive letter in the world. In his work on the origin of words, one can see how he relates to it. In his words, “she absolutely does nothing, helps nothing, expresses nothing.” A pertinent question arises: how did the letter Ъ appear in the Russian language, and what role did its creators assign to it?
The history of the appearance of the letter Ъ
The authorship of the first Russian alphabet is attributed to Cyril and Mythodius. The so-called Cyrillic alphabet, which was based on the Greek language, appeared in 863 after the birth of Christ. In their alphabet, the hard sign was number 29 and sounded like ER. (before the reform of 1917-1918 - 27th in a row). The letter Ъ was a short semivowel sound without pronunciation. It was placed at the end of a word after a hard consonant.
What then is the meaning of this letter? There are two tractable versions of this explanation.
The first option concerned the Old Slavonic letter itself. Since the familiar spaces at that time simply did not exist, it was she who helped to correctly divide the line into words. As an example: “to God’s chosen king.”
The second explanation is associated with the Church Slavonic pronunciation of words. It was ER that did not muffle the voiced consonant when reading a word, as we see in modern Russian.
We pronounce the words flu and mushroom, which have different meanings, the same way – (flu). There was no such sound phonetics in the Old Church Slavonic language. All words were both written and pronounced. For example: slave, friend, bread. This was explained by the fact that the division of syllables in the Old Church Slavonic language was subject to one law, which sounded like this:
“In the Old Church Slavonic language, the ending of a word cannot have consonants. Otherwise the syllable will be closed. What cannot happen according to this law.”
In view of the above, we decided to assign ERb (Ъ) at the end of words where there are consonants. So it turns out: Deli, Tavern, Pawnshop or Address.
In addition to the above two reasons, there is also a third. It turns out that the letter Ъ was used to denote the masculine gender. For example, in nouns: Alexander, wizard, forehead. They also inserted it into verbs, for example: put, sat, (past tense masculine).
Over time, the letter Ъ performed the function of a word separator less and less often. But the “useless” Kommersant at the end of the words still held its position. According to the aforementioned linguist L.V. Uspensky. this small “squiggle” could take up up to 4% of the entire text. And these are millions and millions of pages every year.
18th century reforms
Anyone who believes that the Bolsheviks fired a control shot at the “head” of the ill-fated letter Kommersant and thereby cleansed the Russian language of church prejudices is a little mistaken. The Bolsheviks simply “finished off” her in 1917. It all started much earlier!
Peter himself thought about language reform, especially about Russian writing. An experimenter in life, Peter had long dreamed of inhaling new life into the “decrepit” Old Church Slavonic language. Unfortunately, his plans only remained plans. But the fact that he got this issue off the ground is his merit.
The reforms that Peter began from 1708 to 1710 primarily affected the church script. The filigree “squiggles” of church letters were replaced by common civilian ones. Letters such as “Omega”, “Psi” or “Yusy” have disappeared into oblivion. The familiar letters E and Z appeared.
IN Russian Academy Scientists began to think about the rationality of using certain letters. So the idea of excluding “Izhitsy” from the alphabet arose among academicians already in 1735. And in one of the printing publications of the same academy, a few years later an article was published without the notorious letter B at the end.
Control shot for the letter Ъ
In 1917, there were two shots - one on the cruiser Aurora, the other at the Academy of Sciences. Some people believe that the reform of Russian writing is the merit of the Bolsheviks exclusively. But historical documents confirm that in this matter, tsarist Russia also moved forward.
In the first years of the 20th century, Moscow and Kazan linguists were already talking about the reform of the Russian language. 1904 was the first step in this direction. A special commission was created at the Academy of Sciences, the purpose of which was to simplify the Russian language. One of the questions at the commission was the notorious letter B. Then the Russian alphabet lost “Fita” and “Yat”. New spelling rules were introduced in 1912, but, unfortunately, they were never censored then.
Thunder struck on December 23, 1917 (01/05/18). On this day, People's Commissar of Education Lunacharsky A.V. signed a decree on the transition to a new spelling. The letter Kommersant, as a symbol of resistance to the Bolsheviks, breathed its last.
In order to speed up the funeral of everything that was associated with the “tsarist regime,” on November 4, 1918, the Bolsheviks issued a decree on the removal of the matrix and letters of the letter Kommersant from printing houses. As a result of this, a spelling miscarriage of the Bolsheviks appeared - the apostrophe. The function of the separator was now played by a comma (lifting, moving).
One era has ended and another has begun. Who would have thought that the small letter B would become so big and important in the confrontation between two worlds, white and red, old and new, before the shot and after!
But the letter Ъ remained. It remains simply as the 28th letter of the alphabet. In modern Russian it plays a different role. But that's a completely different story.
