Evgeniy Ilyin - psychology of individual differences. E. P. Ilyin Psychology of sports E. P. Ilyin psychology

The book by Professor E.P. Ilyin describes in detail the theory and practice of differential psychology professional activity. From it you will learn: how individual personal and typical characteristics of a person influence the choice of type of activity and its effectiveness, how the specifics of activity influence the formation of personality traits and behavioral characteristics of a professional (professional deformation), and much more.

The publication is intended for psychologists, teachers and students of university faculties of psychological and pedagogical profiles.

Differential psychophysiology

The textbook is the first systematic presentation of the issues that constitute the subject of differential psychophysiology.

It outlines the history of the formation of this discipline, associated with the development of the doctrine of temperament, the types of higher nervous activity and the properties of the nervous system. The textbook provides a rationale for the typological features of the properties of the nervous system, shows their manifestation in behavior, their influence on the styles and effectiveness of human activity. Considerable space is devoted to the consideration of various concepts of human abilities and giftedness. Methods for studying types of temperament and properties of the nervous system are presented. A special section is devoted to the problems of functional asymmetry and, in particular, right- and left-handedness.

Differential psychophysiology of men and women

This book examines the physiological, mental and social differences between men and women, taking into account numerous domestic and foreign studies.
Differences in the behavior of men and women should be sought not only in the influence of psychological and social attitudes of society, but also in biological differences, including hormonal, central nervous, and morphological. No matter how society influences the formation of the behavior of people of different sexes, the origins of these differences must be sought in the biological purpose of men and women.

Motivation and motives

The textbook is devoted to the main issues of the theory and methodology of studying human motivation and motives. Special attention it focuses on the analysis of ideas about the essence of the motive, its structure and varieties. The author offers his own concept of motivation and motives, based on a critical examination and synthesis of views on this problem available in psychology. The manual outlines the patterns of formation of a person’s motivational sphere in ontogenesis and in various types of behavior and activity, and discusses motivational disorders in pathology. The psychodiagnostic techniques presented in the manual can be successfully used in the practical activities of specialists in the education system.

Sex and gender

The book represents the most complete consideration in Russian psychology of the issue of physiological, psychological and social differences between men and women.

The author systematizes domestic and foreign research, including the latest, on the sex and gender characteristics of people. The need for a joint consideration of these features is shown. In addition to discussing theoretical and methodological issues, the book presents methods for identifying gender differences (psychological sex).

Psychology of aggressive behavior

The book “Psychology of Aggressive Behavior” by Professor E.P. Ilyina is devoted to key issues of the psychology of aggressive behavior.

The topic is covered as fully as possible. Particular attention is paid to the problem of vandalism and violence in modern society. Useful techniques are provided at the end of the manual.

Psychology of adulthood

The psychology of maturity and the psychology of old age are two sections of the psychology of adulthood, which are the subject of a unique book by Professor E.P. Ilyina.

The textbook covers a wide range of current issues, including the socio-psychological aspects of mature and old age, types of maturity and its impact on professionalism, “Balzac age”, existential acme, social functions adults, aging as a process and its prevention, as well as many others. At the end of the manual you will find useful techniques and a detailed bibliography.

Psychology of will

The textbook is devoted to one of the most important sections of general psychology - the theory and methodology of studying volitional processes. The book, from the author’s perspective, analyzes traditional and the latest scientific, philosophical, psychological and physiological ideas about the phenomena of the volitional sphere of man (in particular, about “willpower”), traces the patterns of its development in ontogenesis, as well as its manifestations in various types of behavior and activities , issues of pathology of will are considered.

In a systematized form, the manual presents little-known psychodiagnostic methods for studying willpower, which can be successfully used in the practical activities of specialists in the education system, sports and production-organizational spheres.

Psychology for teachers

The textbook is addressed primarily to educators: teachers, educators preschool institutions, college and university teachers. Particular attention is paid to psychological information that is relevant for practical pedagogy and is absent in most textbooks on educational psychology.

The manual includes five sections: “Psychology of teacher activity”, “Psychology of teaching”, “Psychology of education”, “Psychological characteristics of teachers”, “Preschoolers and students as subjects of play and educational activities and as objects of the teacher’s activity.”

Psychology of trust

Of all the current crises, it is the crisis of confidence that causes the most serious concerns today.

In this regard, the opinion is often expressed that modern society is steadily turning into a society of lies, into a society in which trust becomes one of the highest values ​​that attracts maximum attention. In the new book of Professor Ilyin, this topic is revealed as fully as possible, which was the result of the use of the latest scientific data.

The publication is addressed to students and teachers of psychological and pedagogical faculties, as well as all specialists working in the “person-to-person” system.

Psychology of envy, hostility, vanity

Book by the master of psychology Professor E.P. Ilyin is devoted to key issues of the psychology of envy, hostility, and vanity.

The topic is covered as fully as possible. Particular attention is paid to the problem of pride and ambition in modern society. At the end of the manual, useful techniques and a detailed bibliography are provided.

Psychology of Individual Differences

The book presents basic information on the psychology of individual differences, which are considered in differential psychology and differential psychophysiology (differences in the properties of temperament and personality that determine not so much quantitative as qualitative differences in the behavior and activities of people).

Psychology of love

The book is dedicated to love, love between people, multifaceted and multi-valued in content and unique in form.

From a psychological point of view, love is a very serious phenomenon. Love permeates a person’s entire life, determining his development, attitude, and sometimes the whole meaning of life. It would be strange not to know this the most important aspect life. This is necessary, first of all, so that love gives happiness to a person, and does not lead to disappointments and, especially, to tragedies.

Psychology of help. Altruism, egoism, empathy

In the book of Professor E.P. Ilyin touches upon the problem of helping behavior, a topical and interdisciplinary problem that psychology, sociology, philosophy, pedagogy and medicine are called upon to solve.

The first part of the book is devoted to the psychology of helping behavior and personal characteristics that promote or hinder such behavior (altruism, egoism, etc.), the second to a description of helping professions. The book contains techniques that can be used both in the practical activities of specialists and in the study of this problem by researchers.

Psychology of conscience. Guilt, shame, remorse

Professor Ilyin’s latest book is devoted to the most important aspect of personal morality - the psychology of conscience and its components - guilt and shame.

Until now, this problem has not been sufficiently studied in Russian psychology. The book describes implicit and scientific ideas about conscience, its nature, role and functions. Questions about the sense of duty, the emotion of guilt and remorse, and various aspects of the experience of shame are considered. In addition to an analysis of the literature on this issue, the book provides an extensive bibliography, as well as methods for studying conscience, guilt and shame.

Psychology of sports

The book by the master of psychology, Professor E.P. Ilyin includes four sections: “Psychology of the Athlete’s Activities”, “Psychology of the Training Process”, “Social and Psychological Aspects of Sports” and “Psychology of the Coach’s Activities”. Unlike previous thematic publications, this textbook also examines a number of new issues: psychological aspects of “sports uniform”, psychology of communication in sports, psychology of a sports career, psychology of spectators, psychology of sports refereeing.

The publication is intended for sports psychologists, coaches, teachers and students of university faculties of psychological and pedagogical profiles.

Texts of books on the site not posted and are not available for reading or downloading.
Only the contents of the book and links to online versions of the corresponding test methods are provided.
Online versions of tests are not necessarily based on the text of this particular book and may differ from the printed version.

Psychology of Individual Differences

Preface

Chapter 1. A brief excursion into the history of the study of differences between people

Part one. Temperament and personality types

Chapter 2. The doctrine of temperament

Chapter 3. New approaches to the study of typological differences between people

Part two. Properties of the nervous system as the natural basis of individual differences

Chapter 4. General views about the properties of the nervous system and typological features of their manifestation

Chapter 5. Characteristics of individual properties of the nervous system

Chapter 6. Methodological issues in studying the properties of the nervous system

Part three. Individual differences in behavior

Chapter 7. Differences in the manifestation of temperament properties

Chapter 8. Differences in emotional manifestations

Chapter 9: Motivational Differences

Chapter 10. Differences in the manifestation of “willpower”

Chapter 11. Human individuality

Part four. Individual characteristics and activities

Chapter 12. Two approaches to considering abilities

Chapter 13. Abilities and talents

Chapter 14. General ideas about the style of activity

Chapter 15. Styles of professional and educational activities

Chapter 16. Information (cognitive) styles and personality types

Chapter 17. Leadership and communication styles

Chapter 18. Execution Efficiency various types activities and typological features

Chapter 19. Differential psychophysiological aspects of becoming a professional

Chapter 20. Success of educational activities and typological features

Chapter 21. Methodology for studying the connection between performance efficiency and typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system and temperament

Part five. Health and individual characteristics

Chapter 22. Differences in coping strategies (overcoming behavior) and in the use of defense mechanisms

Chapter 23. Individual characteristics and pathology

Appendix I. Dictionary of basic psychological and physiological concepts

Appendix II. Methods for studying individual characteristics

1. Methods for identifying types and properties of temperament

Methodology “Determination of the predominant type of temperament”

Methodology “Rating scale for measuring student reactivity” (Ya. Strelyau)

Methodology “Properties and formula of temperament”

Hex questionnaire for determining the characterological characteristics of personality

Test “Temperament and Sociotypes” (Heymans)

Questionnaire for assessing the level of infantilism (psychopathy) of a person

2. Methods for studying individual characteristics of the emotional sphere

Quadmodality Emotional Questionnaire

Methodology “Optimist - Pessimist”

Test "Pessimist or optimist"

Optimism – Activity Scale

3. Methods for studying individual characteristics of the motivational sphere

Methodology "Impulsivity"

Methodology “Measuring Rationality”

Methodology “Value Orientations” (M. Rokeach)

Questionnaire for diagnosing gaming addiction (gambling)

4. Methods for studying individual behavioral characteristics

Shyness measurement technique

Methodology “Tendency to exaltation” (V. V. Boyko)

Test "Egocentric associations"

Methodology “Conscientiousness Scale”

Questionnaire “Auto- and heteroaggression”

Methodology “Conflict Personality”

Methodology “Aggressive behavior”

Experimental psychological methodology for studying the type of frustration reactions

Methodology “Shyness-Shyness Scale”

5. Methods for identifying connections between individual characteristics and diseases

Diagnosis of types of attitude towards illness (TOBOL)

6. Methods for studying individual characteristics of the volitional sphere

Patience Self-Assessment Questionnaire

Methods for experimental study of perseverance, courage, determination

Grit Self-Assessment Questionnaire

Self-Assessment Questionnaire for Perseverance

Scale "Social Courage"

7. Methods for studying the typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system

8. Methods for identifying styles of perceptual-intellectual activity

Methodology “Analysis by a teacher of the style of his teaching activity”

Techniques for identifying cognitive styles

B. Kadyrov's questionnaire to identify the relationship between two signaling systems

9. Methods for studying leadership styles

Methodology “Self-assessment of management style”

Methodology “Leadership Style”

Methodology “Tendency towards a certain leadership style”

Methodology for assessing the level of democratization of management based on style characteristics

Methodology "Management style"

Evgeniy Pavlovich Ilyin

Psychology of Individual Differences

Preface

The book presents basic information on the psychology of individual differences, considered in differential psychology and differential psychophysiology. The problems of differential psychophysiology were outlined by me in my previously published book “Differential Psychophysiology” (2001). This book was partially included in this textbook, although in a restructured form and with some additions and abbreviations, which was dictated by the volume of the latter. Thus, the “Psychology of Individual Differences” does not include part 5 “Functional asymmetry as a problem of differential psychophysiology”; Those interested in this problem can refer to the above publication. Differences between men and women are also not addressed. This problem received fairly complete coverage in my other book, “Differential psychophysiology of men and women” (2002).

The new chapters of this textbook are mainly devoted to issues that are considered in differential psychology.

It should be immediately clear what individual differences will be discussed in this book. These are differences in the properties of temperament and personality, which determine not so much quantitative as qualitative differences in the behavior and activities of people. Qualitative differences are an expression of quantitative ones, but the latter are often so great that people, being at different poles of the continuum (that is, when one or another psychological or psychophysiological parameter is manifested in them to a different extent), behave and work differently.

At the same time, when existing differences qualitative (typical) similarity of people is also revealed - in the degree of expression of certain parameters, in the way of behavior, in the style of activity and communication, etc. Being individual, inherent to a specific person, these qualitative differences are also characteristic of other individuals, that is, they can be called typical. They talk about typical differences when people are divided into strong and weak, kind and greedy, emotional and unemotional, etc. However, for example, quantitative differences are also observed among the strong: one person is strong, but not to the same extent as another, and that one is not like the third, etc.

B. M. Teplov pointed out the need quality approach to individual differences. It is the qualitative typical and individual differences between people that are discussed in this book. At the same time, we will talk about their genesis (origin): what is their conditionality - genetic or social, as well as their influence on behavior and the effectiveness of human activity. Accordingly, based on the individual-typical characteristics of a person as an individual and a person, it is possible, with a certain degree of probability, to predict the characteristics of his behavior, the effectiveness of his activities and create optimal conditions for each person that contribute to such effective activities. This is practical significance this section of psychological science, obvious to the luminaries of Russian physiology and psychology I. P. Pavlov, B. M. Teplov, V. S. Merlin.

I will give an excerpt from the preface by E. A. Klimov to the book by V. S. Merlin “Essay on an integral study of individuality” (1986).

When B. M. Teplov’s laboratory plunged into questions of the physiology of types of higher nervous activity (Boris Mikhailovich himself threw out the phrase that in questions of typology he was now more of a physiologist than physiologists themselves), V. S. Merlin used to say something like this: “Well done, Boris Mikhailovich! He is criticized for moving away from practice, from school, even from psychology, but he is deeply right, because without knowledge real basics individual psychological differences cannot truly be moved into practice” (p. 12).

When writing the book, I adhered to the principle of historicism, that is, I described the stages of development of the doctrine of individual differences in people in sequence, as it actually happened - starting from the study of general characteristics (types of temperament and constitution) to the consideration of particular individual ones (properties of the nervous system , temperament and personality), then returning again to the generalized - individuality. It would seem more logical to present the material in a different way - to move from the description of particular characteristics to the presentation of generalized ones, but this path has its drawbacks. In particular, it seems impossible to show the difficulty of forming the positions of scientists different generations on the issue of individual differences, it would also be difficult to highlight not only the discoveries of psychologists, but also the mistakes they made.

The book consists of five parts. The first examines various approaches to generalized individual characteristics of a person - types of temperament and personality. The second part is devoted to the peculiarities of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system, which represent the natural basis of individual differences. The third part deals with individual differences in behavior.

The fourth part examines the effectiveness of human activity depending on his individual characteristics. This part consists of three sections. The first is devoted to the fundamental problem of differential psychology and differential psychophysiology of abilities and giftedness, on which the effectiveness of an individual’s activity largely depends. The second section concerns styles of activity and leadership in which individual characteristics of a person are manifested. The third section contains rich empirical material about the influence of typological features on the success of various types of human activities. In addition to the purely theoretical significance (the problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in human development), knowledge of these facts is also of great practical importance, since on their basis the selection of people for various spheres of professional and sports activity is carried out (or should be carried out), and the optimal one for a given subject is selected. teaching and training methods, style of activity.

The fifth part of the textbook concerns the connection between individual characteristics and predisposition to various diseases. This issue is little covered in the specialized literature. At least not a single book on individual differences even mentions this.

It should be especially emphasized that the proposed manual is intended for those who are already familiar with the basics of psychology, physiology of the nervous system and psychophysiology. Therefore, an unprepared person may have some difficulties when reading this book.

I tried to show the problem of individual differences not in the form of axiomatic propositions, but to illuminate it in all its complexity, without hiding the contradictions and erroneous judgments that exist in the history of science, in order to encourage the reader to think, to actively think, and, ultimately, to find his own points of view on the problem under consideration. Large number links to literary sources due to my desire to give scientific validity and argumentation to the positions expressed in the book.

The book contains an appendix that provides methods for studying individual characteristics of a person and an extensive list of references, which may be useful to those who want to study the issues presented in the manual in more depth.

I hope that the book will be useful for practical psychologists, physicians, as well as for university psychology teachers and will help bridge the existing gap between the physiological and psychological knowledge obtained by psychologists. At the same time, it may also be of interest to physiologists who study humans, helping them to understand the psychological manifestations of physiological processes. The book can also be useful for teachers, since it allows us to understand the natural foundations of students’ abilities and behavior, and an individual approach to them in the process of learning and education.

1.1. The beginning of the development of ideas about individual-typical differences

The origin of differential psychology was due to human experience accumulated over centuries. Over time, it became clear that people have individual differences in behavior. Naturally, this forced us to systematize the observed differences and give them a certain scientific explanation. And it is no coincidence that philosophers already discussed this problem in Ancient Greece. Plato in his book “The Republic” wrote that two people cannot be exactly the same: each differs from the other in his abilities, therefore one should do his own thing, and the other should do his own thing. Moreover, Plato proposed, as they would say now, a test for professional suitability for military service.

"Ilyin E.P. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2012. - 640 pp.: ill. - (Series “Masters of Psychology”).

The textbook is addressed primarily to educators: teachers, preschool teachers, college and university teachers. Particular attention is paid to psychological information. relevant for practical pedagogy and absent from most textbooks on educational psychology.

The manual includes five sections: “Psychology of teacher activities.” “Psychology of education”, “Psychology of education”. “Psychological characteristics of teachers”, “Preschoolers and students as subjects of play and learning activities and as objects of teacher activity.” At the end of the book there is an appendix in which there are two sections on methods for studying the characteristics of the activities and personalities of teachers and methods of studying psychological characteristics pupils and pupils. The publication contains an extensive list of literature related to this issue.

Preface........................................................ ..... 9

Introduction, or Why does a teacher need psychological knowledge.................................12

Section one

Psychology of teacher activity

Chapter 1. Activities of a teacher......................................20

1.1. Pedagogical activity and its structure...................................20

1.2. Stages of pedagogical activity...................................................21

1.3. Pedagogical tasks and their solutions....................................................22

1.4. Functions of a teacher................................................... .............23

1.5. Formation of motives for educational activities...................................25

1.6. Creation of an emotional background adequate to the pedagogical task.................................27

1.7. Stages of organizing educational activities..................................................30

1.8. Teacher's study of students' personalities....................................................31

Chapter 2. Pedagogical communication....................................33

2.1. The concept of “communication”, its types.................................................... ......33

2.2. Characteristics of pedagogical communication...................................................34

2.3. Means of communication........................................................ .............38

2.4. Factors determining the effectiveness of pedagogical communication.........41

2.5. Teacher skills that influence the effectiveness of communication....................................47

2.6. Pedagogical tact................................................... ..........49

2.7. Teacher’s speech culture................................................................... .........50

2.8. Personal characteristics of teachers that make it difficult to communicate with students......53

2.9. Communication and relationships between teachers and students’ parents................57

Chapter 3. Establishing mutual understanding between teacher and students............60

3.1. The essence of mutual understanding and the stages of its establishment.................................60

3.2. Teachers’ perception of students and their first impressions of them.....61

3.3. Teacher's learning and understanding of students...................................66

3.4. Peculiarities of students’ perception of teachers.................................................70

3.5. Ensuring that the teacher understands his students....................................74

3.6. Bringing together the positions of the teacher and students....................................75

3.7. Establishing mutual understanding between teacher and students.................................76

3.8. Collaboration between teacher and students...................................................82

3.9. Typification of students by teachers...................................................83

Chapter 4. Types and forms of teacher influence on students...............84

4.1. Types of impacts................................................... .............84

4.2. Showing attention to the student...................................................85

4.3. Requests and requirements of the teacher.................................................. ..85

4.4. Persuasion and suggestion............................................................. .........88

4.5. Explanation........................................................ ................89

4.6. Compulsion................................................. ................90

4.7. Assessing the actions, behavior of students and the success of their completion of educational tasks.........91

4.8. Encouragement......................................................... ...................96

4.9. Punishment................................................. ...................98

4.10. Use of humor, jokes................................................... 102

Chapter 5. Teacher behavior in conflict situations ................104

5.1. Conflict situations and conflicts.................................................... 104

5.2. Causes of conflicts between teachers and students.................................. 105

5.3. Conditions Conducive to Conflict ...................................... 108

5.4. Phases of conflict development................................................................... .... 109

5.5. Outcomes of conflict situations.................................................. 110

5.6. Basic rules of teacher behavior in conflict situation.............. 113

5.7. Pedagogical management of conflict between students.................................. 116

Section two

Psychology of training and education

Chapter 6. Psychological foundations of learning..........................118

6.1. Learning and its psychological patterns.................................... 119

6.2. Didactic principles......................................................... ... 120

6.3. Psychological and pedagogical characteristics of educational material.................................. 123

6.4. Types of educational influences................................................................... 125

6.5. Monitoring student activities......................................... 126

6.6. Survey of students and its psychological characteristics.................................... 127

6.7. The mark and its psychological impact.................................................... 129

6.8. Psychological characteristics various systems training............ 134

Chapter 7. Psychological features of enhancing students’ cognitive activity in the classroom ........145

7.1. Activation of students' cognitive activity................................... 145

7.2. Ways to maintain sustained attention in class.................................... 150

7.3. Student inattention, its causes and consequences.................................... 151

7.4. Organization of effective perception of educational material in the classroom........ 152

7.5. Organization of conditions for better memorization of educational material by students......... 154

Section three

Psychology of education

Chapter 8. Social and psychological patterns of forming a team and educating students in it ...............168

8.1. The concept of a social group and team....................................................168

8.2. Social status of students in the study group....................................172

8.3. Stages of development of a team of students.................................................... .179

8.4. Psychological features of educating students in a team....................................181

8.5. Public opinion of the student body and the psychological characteristics of its formation..................................184

Chapter 9. Psychological aspects of the formation of morality in students.............192

9.1. What is morality and moral education........................ 192

9.2. Discipline as a moral quality.................................... 193

9.3. Responsibility (sense of duty) .................................................... 196

9.4. Psychological and pedagogical conditions for the formation of morality........... 198

9.5. Stages of formation of moral behavior of students.................................... 203

9.6. Semantic barrier in education...................................................204

9.7. Taking into account the age-related characteristics of students’ personalities in the process of moral education..................................... 207

9.8. Psychology of education of students with deviant behavior.........213

Chapter 10. Psychological aspects of instilling in students the desire for self-improvement.......217

10.1. Psychological features of the development of student independence.......218

10.2. Formation of a standard (ideal)..................................................222

10.3. Self-knowledge and self-esteem as incentives for self-improvement.......224

10.4. Stages and means of self-education for adolescents and older schoolchildren.......231

10.5. Age-related characteristics of self-education...................................236

10.6. Common mistakes self-education........................................237

Chapter 11. Labor education and career guidance for students............239

11.1. Cultivating a positive attitude towards work...................................239

11.2. Self-determination of students and their choice of profession.................................242

11.3. Age stages in the development of professional interests of schoolchildren.......245

11.4. Professional self-determination of schoolchildren of different genders.................................246

11.5. Career guidance work of a teacher....................................................249

Section four

Psychological characteristics of teachers

Chapter 12. Components of professional skill of a teacher..........253

12.1. Pedagogical orientation (vocation)...................................253

12.2. Knowledge (eruditeness) of the teacher.................................................... ...255

12.3. Teacher skills........................................................ ..........258

12.4. Abilities and professionally important qualities of a teacher......261

Chapter 13. Individual and personal characteristics of modern teachers.....279

13.1. Personality features of people who have chosen the teaching profession.........279

13.2. Peculiarities of the motivational sphere of teachers...................................285

13.3. Peculiarities of the emotional sphere of teachers...................................287

13.4. Teachers' resistance to stress...................................................293

13.5. Aggressiveness of teachers................................................... ...293

13.6. Psychophysiological characteristics of teachers...................................296

13.7. Possibilities of using some tests for professional selection of teachers........297

13.8. Psychological characteristics of teacher-leaders.................................299

13.9. Image of teachers........................................................ ..........305

Chapter 14. Stylistic features of teachers...........................309

14.1. Stnli activities of kindergarten teachers .................................... 310

14.2. Teachers' Activity Styles...................................................311

14.3. Style of activity and properties of the nervous system and temperament......317

14.4. Pedagogical leadership styles and their perceptions by students......319

14.5. Pedagogical communication styles...................................................325

14.6. Psychological and pedagogical features of questioning students by teachers with different styles manuals............333

14.7. Peculiarities of student assessment by teachers with different leadership styles....................................334

14.8. Types of teachers........................................................ .............336

14.9. Gender differences in the activities and personality of teachers..................................340

Chapter 15. Psychological aspects of the development of professional skills of a teacher.............343

15.1. Stages of professional development of a teacher...................................343

15.2. Differences between young and experienced teachers...................................345

15.3. Difficulties in the work of young teachers...................................................351

15.4. Features of productive and unproductive teachers...................354

15.5. Psychological characteristics of university teachers of different skill levels.................................360

15.6. Criteria for assessing teaching skills...................................365

Preface

Several decades have passed since the last textbooks on sport psychology were published. During this time, important political and economic changes took place in our country, which also affected sports. The psychology of athletes and coaches has changed. They began to talk less and less about their patriotism, and more and more about lucrative contracts and material security for the future. Against this background, the developments of sports psychologists, created in the 1960-1980s, seemed to have lost relevance for some time. In the 1990s the intensity decreased sharply scientific research in sports psychology and, as a consequence, the number of publications, and monographs have practically disappeared. We can only hope that the stagnation in which sports science, in particular sports psychology, finds itself, is a temporary phenomenon. The study of sports psychology in higher physical education educational institutions no one has canceled it, and therefore new textbooks are needed for students, especially since the old ones have already become a bibliographic rarity.

This textbook includes four sections: “Psychology of the Athlete’s Activities”, “Psychology of the Training Process”, “Social and Psychological Aspects of Sports” and “Psychology of the Activities of Coaches and Sports Judges”. Unlike previous editions, this textbook also examines a number of new issues: psychological aspects of “sports uniform”, psychology of communication in sports, psychology of a sports career, psychology of spectators, psychology of a coach, psychology of sports refereeing. At the same time, the textbook does not contain a section on “Psychological preparation of an athlete,” which is found in many textbooks and textbooks in sports psychology stands out in independent species training along with physical, tactical and technical. It seems to me that it is inappropriate to do this, since psychological preparation includes the mobilization of an athlete before a competition, the regulation of the athlete’s states, the development of his volitional qualities, the tactical training of the athlete, his technical preparation (formation of skills), and his education. That is, everything that a coach and psychologist do with an athlete in terms of his development as a person is psychological preparation. Therefore, what is reflected in this textbook is most directly related to it.

The reader may also notice that the textbook does not have a section on stress. This may seem strange given the boom that took place in the 1970s regarding stress in sports. I adhere to the point of view that stress is not any physical or mental tension of a person, but the body’s reaction to pathological (traumatic) factors.

This does not mean that stress does not occur in sports. Fans die from heart attacks at football matches, athletes during a road cycling race or marathon running in the case of doping, etc. But these are exceptional cases, generally not typical for sports. The concept of "stress" has now become too vague, so I prefer to use the term "mental stress".

There is no section in the textbook dedicated to athlete's reliability, that is, the athlete’s error-free and stable activity under competition conditions. This concept, which came to sports psychology from engineering psychology and became quite fashionable in the 1970s, hardly added clarity to what is meant by psychological stability and physical, technical, tactical preparedness of athletes (which determines the success of competitive activity). The criterion for reliability was either the number of breakdowns, errors (failures, as they say in engineering psychology) of athletes at competitions (that is, the number of unsuccessful performances), or deterioration in results at competitions compared to training. But both are determined by many factors, including those not related to the athlete’s psyche, which are almost impossible to take into account. Therefore, speaking about the reliability of athletes, we must again talk about all the psychological aspects of sports activity.

The main text of the textbook is framed with boxes containing additional information from different sources on the issue under consideration. At the end of the textbook there are applications that can be used by coaches and practical psychologists when studying athletes and coaches.

Introduction. Sports psychology as an academic discipline

We cannot get a complete picture of an athlete based only on oxygen consumption, glycogen stores and biomechanical measurements... The main thing to take into account is psychology, an understanding of those personal qualities that determine the highest achievements in sports. If an athlete is able to manage stress, is resistant to interference and knows how to adapt to changing conditions, then we have a complete set... Research and applied development must be carried out comprehensively, taking into account various aspects, but especially psychological ones.

Peter Snell three-time Olympic champion, Doctor of Physiology

Having gone through the path of big sport, we did not seriously think about the role of psychology in the preparation of high-class athletes, we did not pay due attention individual approach, the relationship between coach and athlete, in which they lost greatly. Often, a trainer obsessed with vanity fancies himself a psychologist. Later, looking back, you notice with bitterness that many young talented athletes for some reason did not reach their goal.<…>The role of a psychologist in our team is downplayed, but in practice I had to resort to his help. I believe that using the recommendations and advice of a psychologist, it was possible not only to keep many athletes on the team, but also to achieve significant results.<…>Even indirect contact with psychological science - through communication with a psychologist - gave reason to overestimate a lot, to see its enormous possibilities.

Khmelev A. A., Honored Trainer of the USSR

Previously, I was very jealous of the appearance of a stranger in the national team. I thought that I was on my own best psychologist. Gayich thought the same thing before me. But apparently I can’t handle it... I can talk about the importance of the match. It is impossible to remove the feeling of responsibility for the result, which kills the spark in the eyes... My assistant and I will go to special courses. Maybe after them it will be easier to understand a psychologist. And sometimes some people contact you, but you don’t understand what they are doing and why. This was the case at Dynamo, when the guys were asked to put together cubes and disassemble a parachute in order to feel like a team. But it’s obvious to me: the team needs a psychologist.

V. Olekno, head coach of the Russian men's volleyball team

Subject of sports psychology. Sports psychology is a field of psychological science that studies the patterns of human mental manifestations in the process of training and competitive activity. Briefly, we can say that sports psychology is the science of man in the field of sports. The need for the emergence of this science is due to the specific conditions of sports activity, primarily the desire for maximum achievements, competition (the desire to win), large, and sometimes extreme, physical and mental stress.

Sports psychology as a scientific and educational discipline includes a number of general And special sections, This:

1) motives for sports activities;

2) psychological foundations of orientation and selection into various sports and psychodiagnostics of inclinations and abilities;

3) psychomotor skills;

4) psychology of training and education in sports;

5) psychological characteristics of physical, technical and tactical training of athletes;

6) psychological characteristics of the personality of athletes;

7) psychology of a sports team;

8) the athlete’s conditions and their psychoregulation;

9) styles of sports activity;

10) psychological characteristics of the personality and activities of coaches;

11) psychological characteristics of the personality and activities of sports judges;

12) psychological characteristics of various sports;

13) psychological characteristics of fans.

Unfortunately, not all of these aspects have been studied equally fully. For example, psychologists have only recently begun to study the psychological characteristics of fans, and the psychology of sports refereeing still remains a virtually untouched topic.

Methods, used in sports psychology to study the psychological characteristics of athletes, coaches, sports teams, are the same as in general psychology. They are divided into four groups: organizational, empirical, quantitative and qualitative analysis.

Organizational methods determine the research strategy and include comparative (including comparative age or cross-sectional methods) and longitudinal.

Comparative method used to study psychological differences between athletes of various sports, playing roles, gender, qualifications, specifics of the training process and other factors.

Longitudinal method is used for the purpose of long-term (over several months and years) tracking of the mental and psychomotor development of the same athlete or group of athletes. It makes it possible to visually and dynamically trace the influence of sports training on changes in the psychological characteristics of athletes.

Empirical methods are very diverse and include objective observation, introspection, experimental method and psychodiagnostics.

Objective observation aims to study various behavioral and emotional manifestations of athletes in the natural conditions of their activities (in training, competitions, training camps). It can be continuous or selective, using verbal (tape recorder), shorthand or protocol recording, technical means (video equipment). Observation should be carried out according to a pre-drawn up plan and scheme. It should be systematic, which will ensure a relatively complete collection of material on the issue of interest.

Introspection is a method of self-knowledge and is used by athletes when analyzing their states, actions, and technique of movements performed in order to improve. Self-observation should also be systematic and become a habit for the athlete. The results should be recorded in a diary to enable qualitative self-analysis.

Experimental method has two types - laboratory and natural experiments:

The laboratory experiment is carried out in special rooms equipped with signaling and recording devices and apparatus (reflexometer, kinematometer, tremometer, etc.);

A natural (field) experiment is organized in natural conditions (in training, competitions) and has two varieties - ascertaining and formative. These types of experiments also use equipment (portable or remote).

Psychodiagnostic methods are aimed at identifying the inclinations, individual abilities and talent of the athlete as a whole, his typological characteristics of the properties of the nervous system and temperament, personality traits, diagnosis of conditions (pre-competition, competitive and post-competition), changes in psychological parameters after exercise. These methods can be used for: selecting candidates for teams, choosing an appropriate type of activity and playing role for a given athlete, as well as a style of activity.

Methods of quantitative and qualitative analysis are used for mathematical and statistical processing of the data obtained in the study and their meaningful analysis.

A brief excursion into the history of the emergence and development of sports psychology

The term “psychology of sports” was introduced into scientific use by the Russian psychologist V.F. Chizh (see: Psychology of Sports. St. Petersburg, 1910), although even earlier, at the very beginning of the 20th century, this concept was used in his articles by the founder of the modern Olympic movement Pierre de Coubertin. In 1913, on the initiative of the International Olympic Committee, a congress on sports psychology was organized in Lausanne (Switzerland), and from that moment on, the science in question received official status. However, the weak development of sports did not contribute to the rapid development of science, which was studied only by a few scientists, mainly in the USA, Germany, and the USSR. In our country, the pioneers of sports psychology were A. P. Nechaev, who published the monograph “Psychology of Physical Culture” in 1927, A. Ts. Puni, Z. I. Chuchmarev, P. A. Rudik. In the pre-war years, special course programs “Psychology of Sports” were developed for physical education institutes.

Intensive development of sport psychology began in many countries after the Second World War. This was due to the growing prestige of sports, as well as the struggle of two political systems - socialist and capitalist, which sought to prove their advantage, including through sporting achievements.

A little later, International Congresses on Sport Psychology began to be held regularly, the International Journal of Sport Psychology was established in 1970, and the European and North American Associations of Sport Psychologists arose in the 60s of the 20th century.

In our country, in 1952, A. Ts. Puni defended the first doctoral dissertation on the psychology of sports, and then monographs appeared devoted to research in this branch of psychology, the authors of which were G. M. Gagaeva, S. Ch. Gellershtein, A. A Lalayan, V. G. Norakidze, A. Ts. Puni, O. A. Chernikova. In subsequent years, many scientists made a great contribution to the development of sports psychology: O. V. Dashkevich, E. A. Kalinin, R. A. Piloyan, V. M. Pisarenko, A. V. Rodionov, O. A. Sirotin, V. A. Tolochek, I. P. Volkov, G. D. Gorbunov, T. T. Dzhamgarov, R. M. Zagainov, Yu. Ya. Kiselev, V. L. Marishchuk, A. N. Nikolaev, V. K Safonov, B. N. Smirnov, N. B. Stambulova, E. N. Surkov, Yu. L. Khanin, B. A. Vyatkin, A. D. Ganyushkin, A. A. Lalayan, Yu. A. Kolomeytsev and many others. For ten years now, the Faculty of Psychology of St. Petersburg State University has been training psychologists in the specialty “Sports Psychology”.

Currently, sports psychology has become not only a theoretical, but also a practical discipline that provides significant assistance to athletes and coaches in their desire to achieve high sports results.

Section I
Psychology of sports activity

CHAPTER 1
Psychology of athlete activity

Sport is a specific type human activity and at the same time - a social phenomenon that helps raise the prestige of not only individuals, but also entire communities, including the state.

Currently, sports activities are divided into three categories: mass sports, elite sports and professional sports. If the main goal of people involved in mass sports is to improve health, physical and mental development, and spend leisure time, then in elite sports the main goal is to identify and compare the maximum physical and mental capabilities of people in the process of performing various physical exercises. Professional sport has turned into a show and has become a business area, a way to earn big money, and there is no longer talk about improving health. Sometimes, on the contrary, health is ruined for the sake of money. All of these categories are stages of growth for many athletes.

1.1. Features and stages of sports activity

Despite the significant differences between mass sports and elite sports and especially professional sports, sports activity in its main characteristics remains the same everywhere, with all its inherent patterns and features. Therefore, the characteristics of sports activity given below apply to any category of sports.

The activities of athletes are competitive in nature and are inherently aimed at achieving maximum results, regardless of the level of qualification of the athletes.

Without a competitive element, sports activity loses its meaning. In this regard, the interaction of athletes at competitions has two aspects: in relation to the opponent - how confrontation, and in relation to teammates - how cooperation, mutual assistance. The confrontation is regulated by the rules of the competition, violation of which leads to penalties, up to and including disqualification of the athlete.

The activity of athletes is a long-term continuous process of learning and physical development, that is, training sessions using large, and sometimes extreme, physical exertion.

The full value of sports activity requires the athlete to comply with the regime of life in general, and not just the regime of training and competitions. The lifestyle of an athlete is associated with many restrictions, depriving oneself of many pleasures, including communication with family and friends for a long time.

The famous sports psychologist R. M. Zagainov writes: “How many times have I seen the homesick eyes of athletes abandoned (even if only for a short time) “in distant distances” from their home (homesickness is especially strong among families!). It is almost impossible to calm such people down. The only way is to somehow distract" (Zagainov R. M. Psychologist on the team. M.: FiS, 1984. P. 77).

The product of sports activity is a change in the athlete as a person and an individual, sporting achievements (records, championship titles) and spectacle.

For competitive activity characteristic following features:

publicity with all the ensuing consequences (evaluation by viewers, media, etc.). Therefore, playing sports has become a prestigious activity, providing an opportunity to become famous throughout the country and the world;

significance it for the athlete, since he strives either for victory, or for a record, or for fulfilling a sports category or standard;

limited number of scoring attempts, therefore, there is often no way to correct an unsuccessful action or performance;

limited time, during which the athlete can assess the emerging competitive situation and accept independent decision;

unusual conditions for its implementation when changing competition venues: climatic, temporal, meteorological differences, new sports equipment, gyms and playgrounds.

All this leads to athletes developing states of neuropsychic tension, which is usually absent during training sessions. There is evidence that men respond better to competition conditions than women.

In addition to the athletes themselves, modern sports involve coaches, sports directors, doctors, psychologists, massage therapists, managers, judges, and journalists. Therefore, training an outstanding athlete requires large financial costs and the use of the latest scientific achievements in the field of theory and methods of sports training, physiology, medicine, psychology, pharmacology, and management. However central figure the athlete remains, the rest of the actors are engaged in searching for talents and creating conditions for the realization of the athlete’s opportunities.

Competitive activity as a broad concept includes a number of stages that differ both organizationally and psychologically: preparation for the activity, taking the start, carrying out the activity, carrying out recovery procedures and evaluating the achieved result. Each stage of sports activity corresponds to certain psychological states that arise depending on the conditions and specifics of the activity. However, it should be borne in mind that there may not be a strict correspondence between the state and stages of activity. For example, a state of fear characterizes preparation for an activity to a greater extent, but it can manifest itself both during practice and at the stage of direct implementation of the activity. A state of monotony can arise not only during activity, but also during preparation for it, etc. Therefore, the correlation of any state to a certain stage of activity is conditional, and it should be considered only as a structural organization of the material.

At each stage of competitive activity, the athlete faces certain tasks, including psychological ones.

1.2. Psychological characteristics of the pre-launch stage

Experienced athletes begin direct preparation for a specific competition a few days before the start. At this stage the following is carried out:

1) collecting information about the place and conditions of the competition, about possible opponents;

2) forecasting the success of a performance based on a study of the athlete’s functional state at a given period of time;

3) setting a realistic goal;

4) planning future activities (development of tactics, choice of means to achieve the goal);

5) selection and use of ways to maintain the athlete’s mobilization, the optimal level of arousal through the rational organization of free time.

When it comes to collecting information about opponents, keep in mind that athletes respond to it differently. For some, knowledge about the high result of an opponent shown in recent competitions can mobilize them and force them to work harder in training, while for others, on the contrary, it will have a depressing effect.

The outstanding athletics coach Viktor Ilyich Alekseev often used stimulation for his students in the following way:

- Galya! Haven't you heard sports news on the radio?

– And you didn’t look through the newspapers?

– Do you know, so-and-so (the main competitor of Galina Zybina, Olympic champion in shot put) showed such-and-such a result yesterday at a competition in Prague!

And he named the result, which was 15 cm higher than Zybina’s record. After this training enthusiasm, the athlete lasted for two weeks. Only later did she find out that all this information was invented by the coach in order to “turn on” the athlete and better prepare her for the competition.

A very important task facing coaches at this stage is the selection of athletes for the team to perform in the competition. For this purpose, estimates, control starts, battles, and fights are carried out. This causes mental stress in athletes, and they need a certain time to restore the expended mental energy. Selection for US national teams ends three months before a major international competition, such as Olympic Games and world championships. In our country, the deadline for the end of the selection process is significantly closer to the beginning of the competition. Moreover, in many sports, despite the expiration of the official selection period, vacant places are left with the presence of several applicants. Numerous calculations are arranged between them. And in almost 100% of cases, it is these athletes who have unsuccessful performances in competitions. Athletes in difficult training conditions associated with additional neuropsychic stress become exhausted ahead of time. Such selection is in many cases even more stressful for applicants than participation in competitions.

I had to observe this picture at the team’s fencing gathering Russian Federation in preparation for the Spartakiad of the Peoples of the USSR: after morning training and afternoon rest, daily battles were organized between athletes who did not have a firm place in the team. All this was accompanied by endless meetings of the coaching staff and heated debates between coaches defending their students. Naturally, this further aggravated the athletes’ nervousness.

The following episode shows the nervous and emotional stress that athletes are in before major competitions: one of the fans, seeing the famous domestic weightlifter walking towards him, decided to take a photo of him. Noticing this, the weightlifter snatched the fan’s camera and smashed it on the asphalt.

Organization of leisure time for athletes on the eve of competitions. For an athlete’s successful performance at competitions, it is important to organize leisure time the day before. Required free time affairs, cultural events, so that the athlete does not languish from idleness and painful, exhausting thoughts and worries about the upcoming outcome of the performance. Unfortunately, this is exactly what is observed most often.

The use of certain methods by the athletes themselves before a competition is purely individual. Some athletes seclude themselves and withdraw into themselves, while others become increasingly sociable and talkative. The famous American runner Katie Hadmont said the following a day before the start at the Munich Olympics: “I’m looking for a rumble. I can't tune in without noise. In silence, the arms drop and the legs do not run.” Others are distracted from the upcoming competitions: for example, the future Olympic champion in short-distance running V. Borzov wandered through the halls of painting exhibitions. Still others try not to disturb the usual rhythm of life - they train as usual.

The coach of the USSR national basketball team, A. Gomelsky, wrote: “Many people believe that training on the day of the game is inappropriate. I take the opposite point of view. And here's why: morning training significantly relieves the psychological stress before a match; in the end, it simply keeps the player occupied until lunch. After lunch - rest, sleep, for those who are used to sleeping, walks - for those who do not sleep before the games. Sometimes on the eve of the match, and sometimes two or three hours before the match there is a team meeting. I would especially like to note the following. Analysis is not a purely technical operation, when basketball players and the coach are only busy developing technical and tactical means of playing the game. Indeed, in most cases, especially when it comes to high-class teams, basketball players understand the technique of the game quite well. Analysis is, first of all, the psychological preparation of athletes going into a difficult fight together with a coach. This is their unification, unity. This and, I’m not afraid to say in a high style, patriotic preparation. For a team located far beyond the borders of the Motherland must be united by a high patriotic spirit. In such analyzes, intonation and words that inspire victory are very important. The coaches of our strongest teams never forget about this, and the coaches of our national teams always remember this. In the remaining time, players have time to calm down, digest, perceive and think through the upcoming game plan. And one more thing. Don't leave impressionable players alone. Try to accommodate them in a hotel so that they psychologically support each other” (Soviet sport. 1971. January 23).

On the eve of the competition, you can successfully use entertainment events (theater, cinema, circus), however, for impressionable people, performances and films should be selected based on content so as not to disrupt normal night sleep. But not all trainers have a positive attitude towards such “cult trips”. I remember how, during an evening examination of the Leningrad hockey team SKA, its coach, an outstanding former goalkeeper V. Puchkov, looked at his watch and interrupted the conversation with me, saying: “Sorry, but, unfortunately, I have to take the team to the cinema.” - “Why unfortunately?” – I asked. “Because when I was a player, on the eve of the match I sat and thought about how I would play tomorrow.”

The main activities carried out by coaches 24 hours before the start of the competition in order to increase the mental reliability of the athlete are: individual and collective conversations - “settings”, individual and collective conversations on abstract topics.

Trainers believe that giving lectures and reports on both special and abstract topics is inappropriate.

Regarding the organization of entertainment and cultural events, 65% of coaches believe that their focus should be general, and not specifically sports.

A very important question is whether it is advisable to conduct training 24 hours before the competition. All 100% of coaches believe that training is advisable, but 68% of them believe that it should be for their sport, and 32% for other sports.

Autogenic training as a calming part and psychotonic training as an stimulating part of psychoregulatory training (PRT) are always used by 46–47% of trainers in their work with athletes, sometimes used by 35–36%, and never used by 17–19% of trainers. It is considered optimal to conduct PRT in the period from 30 minutes to 1 hour before the start of the competition under the direct supervision of a coach.

Plakhtienko V. A., Bludov Yu. M. In: Mental stress in sports. Perm, 1975. pp. 115–116

As one of the methods of combating the athlete’s premature strong excitement and preserving his mental energy, one can use his “unexpected” inclusion in the starting line-up of the team or in the composition of the competition participants on the eve of it. Then the emotional athlete will not have time to “burn out.” Guided by this, experienced coaches announce the team's starting lineup on game day.

It is known from chess championships that athletes who are included a few days before the competition in place of a sick participant perform very successfully and often even become winners, although they did not engage in special preparation for this tournament. There is a well-known case in football when the Danish national team at the very last moment was included in the European Championship instead of a disqualified team from another country. As a result, it was the Danes who won the championship, and not those who had been preparing for this championship for a long time. These facts can be explained by the absence of pre-start tension and the preservation of nervous energy.

From a psychological perspective, another question is also important: should athletes participating, say, in evening competitions, visit the competition site in the morning and monitor the performance of their opponents before the start of their performance? Undoubtedly, familiarization with the place of future competitions should be carried out, if possible, in advance, the day before or even earlier. When a person finds himself in new and unusual conditions, he often has an indicative reaction, the “What is it?” reflex. (according to I.P. Pavlov). Such a reaction can increase pre-start arousal, but when the situation or environment is repeated, the indicative reaction fades away. It is precisely because of the presence of an orienting reflex, as K. M. Smirnov believes, that shifts before the preliminary races can be more pronounced than before the finals.

Obviously, you should not watch your opponent’s performance before your own appearance, because this increases the psychological load. Thus, according to the coach of the CSKA volleyball players, the athletes played a match in the tournament much worse than the day before, because before the match they carefully watched the game of the team with whom they had to play on the last day. In fact, these were two matches, a double dose of psychological stress, which is very difficult to withstand.

One scientific publication wrote that pressing on a dynamometer when two groups of athletes compete with each other is stressful.

When they talk about the stability or instability of the results shown by an athlete as criteria for his reliability, the question arises: what is better - to be unstable, but to win Olympic gold once in his career (as the American long jumper Bob Beamon did in his time, who established at the Olympics in Mexico a phenomenal world record, which he himself could not even come close to), or be stable, but take places somewhere in the top six? In our country there was a 400 m hurdler who showed the same result throughout the season, a record for himself, but he could not improve it. I think that such reliability of performances hardly pleased him.

How important this is for athletes is shown by a survey of Soviet Olympians. Half of them collected clippings from newspapers and magazines with materials about them, 38.5% said they remember when, where and who first mentioned their names in the press, 39.2% of athletes claimed that publications about them in the press helped them in life and sports. At the same time, 35.1% noted that during their sports career, biased materials and unfair reproaches against them appeared in the press, which caused an unpleasant aftertaste (Milshtein O. A., Kulinkovich K. A. Soviet Olympian: a social portrait. M .: FiS, 1979. P. 123).