II. Lexico-syntactic analysis. A. Define the literary genre. B. Follow how the author develops the theme and show how the passage in question relates to the context.B. Determine the natural division of the text (paragraphs and sentences). D. Identify connecting words

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1. The concept of “Particle” as a service part of speech

2. Homonymy: particles with independent parts of speech

3. Particles with functional parts of speech

Introduction

The relevance of the study is due to the increased lately in linguistics, interest in function words, including particles as a means of providing semantic, structural and communicative organization of the text.

In connection with the discovery of implicit elements of meaning in the semantic structure of particles, the communicative properties of particles receive a new interpretation in the scientific literature.

The works of L. Vezhbitskaya, E. V. Paducheva, G. E. Kreidlin, T. M. Nikolaeva are devoted to this problem.

In all studies, it is undeniable that the information content of most particles is wider than the content of a single utterance, since the specificity of the functioning of particles in the text is their strict dependence on the implicit semantic component, which is included in the semantics of the utterance as a fund of general knowledge that unites the addresser and addressee of speech .

However, an analysis of the specialized literature on the communicative properties of particles indicates that the role of the particle in identifying implicit meanings in a literary text is not sufficiently covered. Linguists pay more attention to such particles, how, too, even, only.

The particle remains on the periphery of the study of linguistic means involved in the actualization of implicit textual meanings. The active use of the particle in written texts is explained, in our opinion, by the ability of a given linguistic unit to interact with “beyond-text” information and serve as a means of “compression” of information.

The purpose of the work is to analyze derived particles in the modern Russian language.

To achieve the goal of the work, the following tasks are set:

give the concept of “Particle” as a functional part of speech;

study homonymy: particles with independent parts of speech;

consider particles with auxiliary parts of speech;

study adverbial particles based on the materials of the National Corpus of the Russian Language;

consider homonymous particles with auxiliary parts of speech and non-nominal parts of speech.

When analyzing the material, we used the following methods:

­ statistical processing, observation of material;

descriptive;

comparative (in particular, a comparison of data from Explanatory Dictionaries and Grammars about the lexico-grammatical nature and one’s own observations on the functional-semantic specificity);

linguistic experiment (synonymous replacement or its exclusion from the syntactic structure).

The study of the functional-semantic features of the word here and its derivatives within the boundaries of a closed speech work at all levels of its syntactic system makes it possible to explain the modifications of the lexical and grammatical invariant meaning of the word here by the influence of functional contexts and the author’s style of writing M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.

Theoretical significance scientific research due to the fact that new approach to the analysis of function words allows us to expand the information available in linguistics about the lexical and grammatical properties of the word here and its derivatives.

1. The concept of “Particle” as a service part of speech

The term particle (Latin particula), like most of the grammatical terminology, was inherited by Russian grammar from ancient grammar, which, in turn, adopted it from Eastern grammars (cf. Arabic harf - particle). This term is used in two meanings - general and specific. Particles in the broad sense of the word are the same as “particles of speech.” “Particles of speech,” which include, among other things, conjunctions and prepositions, are contrasted with “parts of speech.”

This general concept"particles" embraces all classes of so-called "functional", "formal" or "partial" words. Particles are classes of words that usually do not have a completely independent real or material meaning, but mainly introduce additional shades into the meanings of other words, groups of words, sentences, or serve to express various kinds of grammatical (and therefore logical and expressive) relationships. The lexical meanings of these words coincide with their grammatical, logical or expressive-stylistic functions.

Therefore, the semantic scope of these particles is very wide, their lexical and grammatical meanings are very flexible, they are at the mercy of syntactic use. “These are, as it were, affixes detached from the basics, moving freely across the surface of the language (although historically it’s just the opposite: the affixes themselves come from such words clinging to full words).”

The grammatical development of the question of particles of speech in modern times constitutes an integral merit of the Fortunat school (if A. M. Peshkovsky is included in it). But A. A. Shakhmatov contributed especially a lot of new things to the understanding of particles. The term particles in the broad sense (or “partial words”) corresponds to the concept of “linking words” (“syntaxeme words”, to use the term of Academician I. I. Meshchaninov).

Linking words are very numerous and productive. Statistical calculations by stenographers show that the most great place Among the most common words are prepositions, conjunctions, particles and pronouns. Thus, the French stenographer Estou calculated that in a French text of 20,000 words, 12 words (members and prepositions) are repeated 8,000 times (i.e., they make up 40% of the total text); in a text of 30,000 words, 23% were new words in the second thousand, 9% in the tenth, and 4% in the thirteenth. Keding, who studied frequency of use statistics different words and categories of words in the German language, found that in the material he examined from 11,000,000 words, the member der, die, das, the conjunction und and the prepositions zu and in are repeated 1,292,149 times and thus constitute 12% of the total composition of German speech. Russian linguistic word language

In relation to the Russian language, preliminary statistical calculations show that in the text (variously selected passages of book and spoken language) out of 54,000 words (54,338 words), the most common prepositions are: in (1881 times), on (770 times), with (578 times), to (267 times), for (259 times), for (236 times), from (202 times), from (174 times), to (108 times), at (80 times). N. A. Morozov in his article “Linguistic Spectra” also came to the conclusion that in the Russian language the most commonly used prepositions are in, on, with. Among the conjunctions, they are distinguished by frequency of use and (1963 times in a text of 54,000 words) and a (740 times). Conjunctions and prepositions, especially as part of book speech, play a huge organizing role.

Thus, among connective words, among particles of speech, two sharply defined categories stand out most clearly - prepositions and conjunctions; and in addition, there are still several small groups of words that are united by the common properties of a hybrid-semi-grammatical, semi-lexical type and an intermediate position between adverbs and modal words, on the one hand, and conjunctions, on the other hand. It is these groups of “partial” words that usually retain the title of “particles” in the proper sense. There is no particular need to replace this traditional term with some neologism, although the internal inconsistency of dividing “particles of speech”, or function words, into prepositions, conjunctions and particles is obvious. According to the definition of academician A. A. Shakhmatova, particles include “words that enhance or emphasize in one way or another grammatical forms or predicate." The overwhelming majority of particles in the Russian language reveal modal shades in their meaning and gravitate towards the category of modal words.

V. N. Sidorov in “Essay on Russian Grammar literary language"An attempt was made to contrast particles with function words (prepositions, conjunctions, connectives). “Depending on what kind of formal meanings - syntactic or non-syntactic - are expressed by non-independent words, they are divided into two categories - function words and particles.” “Unlike function words, particles express non-syntactic formal meanings, adding additional semantic shades to the real meaning of independent words of various kinds (he will come; only he will come; he will come, etc.). Consequently, in their grammatical role and meaning, particles are close to word-forming affixes-prefixes and suffixes, which also add additional meanings to the real meaning of independent words.” But here the distinction between syntactic and non-syntactic meanings lacks fundamental depth and certainty: it is internally contradictory. This internal inconsistency and lack of differentiation of the concept - “syntactic meaning” in V. N. Sidorov’s grammar - immediately affects the definition of particles and their classification.

Particles are “non-independent words that usually express different shades of the speaker’s attitude to what is expressed in the sentence.” Further, the use of interrogatives (is it, really, really), exclamatory (how, what), intensifying (that, even, here, after all), emphasizing (only, only, only) and negative particles is noted. Thus, here all ways of expressing modal relations in the structure of a sentence are taken beyond the limits of syntax. The superficial formalism and lack of thought of this point of view are very clearly evident even in those illustrative examples that explain the functions of particles: “not a friend, but an enemy”; “you know that”; “Do you know this?”; “not far, but not close”; "what the strange case! etc.

The syntactic nature of the functions of all these particles is beyond doubt. There is no similarity, analogy or parallelism between them and word-forming affixes. Particles (no matter how vague this term is) have to be considered as a special type of words, but in the same grammatical-semantic circle to which prepositions, conjunctions and connectives belong.

In the modern Russian language, the following eight main categories of particles are especially clearly and sharply distinguished:

reinforcing-restrictive, or excretory;

connecting;

definitive;

index;

uncertain;

quantitative;

negative;

modal-verb.

Question and exclamation words also come close here, but these categories are more closely related to the category of modal words. The class of particles is deeply embedded in the category of modal words, and here new, hybrid types of particles take shape and develop. The history of the Russian dictionary presents vivid examples of the transformation of modal words into particles.

However, it is impossible to connect all particles, minus prepositions and conjunctions, with the category of modality. The fact is that some of these particles are close to conjunctions, while the functions of others sometimes go beyond the boundaries of modal relations. Therefore, the opinion that particles do not carry any syntactic functions and are grammatically opposed to conjunctions and prepositions should be recognized as erroneous and accidental.

“Particles include function words that serve in speech to express various semantic shades of a single word or a whole sentence” [Grammar-1960, vol. 1, p. 639].

“The class of particles combines unchangeable non-nominal (functional) words, which, firstly, participate in the formation of morphological forms of words and sentence forms with different meanings of irreality (motivation, subjunctiveness, convention, desirability); secondly, they express a wide variety of subjective-modal characteristics and assessments of the message or its individual parts; thirdly, they participate in expressing the purpose of the message (interrogativeness), as well as in expressing affirmation or negation; fourthly, they characterize an action or state by its course in time, by the completeness or incompleteness, effectiveness or ineffectiveness of its implementation” [Russian Grammar-1980, vol. 1, p. 723].

The term particle is the Russian translation of the Latin particula. It is used in a broad and narrow sense. Particles in the broad sense of the word include classes of words that do not have an independent real meaning, but serve to express various grammatical relations and introduce additional shades into the meanings of other words, phrases, and sentences (“linking words”). “These are, as it were, affixes detached from the basics, moving freely across the surface of the language (although historically it’s just the opposite: the affixes themselves come from such words clinging to full words)” [Peshkovsky A.M. Russian syntax in scientific coverage. - M., 1938. - P. 67].

The term particle in the broad sense of the term was used by linguists back in the 18th century, and primarily in the works of M.V. Lomonosov. This interpretation continued into the 20th century. in the works of V.V. Vinogradov and some other linguists.

In modern linguistics, a narrow understanding of the term “particle” is accepted as an auxiliary part of speech along with prepositions and conjunctions. Prepositions indicate the syntactic dependence of names on other words. Conjunctions join words, phrases and sentences. Particles have a special function: they serve to convey different semantic shades of words, phrases and sentences. Therefore, some linguists talk about the grammaticality of prepositions and conjunctions and the semantics of particles.

In modern linguistics, particles are one of the most controversial parts of speech.

In the Russian Grammar-1980, particles are distinguished by function: 1) formative (let's, would, let, let, yes); 2) negative (not, nor); 3) interrogatives (and, whether, really, perhaps, for, what, or what, how); 4) characterizing the action in terms of time or effectiveness (it was, it happened, almost, like, just not, no, no (yes) and, so and); 5) modal (and, after all, there, here, just, yes, also, and, or, precisely, only, well, it, simply, directly, to you, only, really, this, give, give (those), yes, they say, only, yet, exclusively, well, and, for myself, etc.); 6) affirming or denying remarks (yes, no, exactly, yes, really, exactly, that’s good, okay, it’s going, well, etc.).

The classification presented in the grammar of N.M. seems more convincing. Shansky and A.N. Tikhonov. The authors distinguish the following categories of particles by value.

Particles with semantic meanings:

demonstrative: here, there, it, etc.;

defining-clarifying: exactly, exactly, exactly, just, truly, almost, approximately, almost, etc.;

excretory-restrictive: only, only, everything, exclusively, only, at least, at least, etc.

Adjacent to this group are intensifying particles, which can also act as a selection function: even, even and, same, and after all, not, nor, yet, then, simply, directly, positively, definitely, decisively, etc.

Emotionally expressive particles: what for, how, that’s how, where, that, that, and, about, etc.

Modal particles:

affirmative: yes, yes, exactly, definitely, how, yeah, yeah, etc.;

negative: not, nor, no, not at all, not at all, etc.;

interrogative: is it, is it, is it really, is it possible, what, and, yes, etc.;

comparative: as, as if, as if, as if, exactly, like, etc.;

particles indicating someone else's speech: - de, they say, supposedly.

Traditionally identified word-forming particles (- then, -or, -something, not -, neither-, something -), according to N.M. Shansky and A.N. Tikhonov, should be considered in word formation; formative particles (let, let, yes, would, let) - when studying the grammatical category of mood; postfix in the formative function - in morphology (as a voice-forming morpheme).

This classification is based on the achievements of linguistics in this area, but also needs to be improved.

Let's name another classification - A.M. Shelyakina. He identifies the following semantic categories of particles:

1. Particles that serve to express the relationship of the whole or a particular statement to reality:

affirmative (confirming) (yes, that’s right, okay, good, that’s right, that’s it);

negative (not, neither, no, not at all);

interrogative (whether, really, really);

incentive (let, let, come on, well, come on);

­ subjunctive mood(would);

excretory-restrictive (only, only, precisely);

excretory-indicative (here (here), here (there));

excretory-enhancing (after all, even, and, well, already, and);

defining-characterizing (just, almost, almost, completely);

comparative (as if, as if, as if, as if);

particles of authenticity (supposedly, they say, de, they say).

II. Particles that express the speaker’s attitude towards what is being communicated.

Particles with the meaning of doubt, uncertainty (hardly, sort of, as if);

expressing preference (better);

emotional assessment (well, that’s it, just, what the, that’s it).

[Shelyakin M.A. Handbook of Russian grammar. - M.: Rus. lang., 1993. - P. 216-217].

3. Classification of particles by structure, use and location

All particles can be divided into two groups according to their structure:

simple (well, after all, simple, not, etc.): Well, how is your health, treasure? (A. Kron);

compound (after all, almost, as if, etc.): Yes, as you can see. Excellent... (A. Kron).

Particles used may include:

a) to the whole sentence as a whole: I’m just used to telling the truth (K.S.);

b) by the way: We followed a barely noticeable path and came out onto a hayfield road (K.P.). Only sometimes, flashing past the late dawn fading over the forest, a flock of wild ducks lands on the lake with a whistle and splash (Yu.B);

c) to the phrase: Tkalenko was only twenty-three years old (K.S.). And in this sense, the Oryol land comes out almost in first place (V. Pes.);

e) can be used as indivisible sentences: - Let me fly. - Sokolov, without sitting down, put his hand to his helmet. - Come on (K.S.).

Based on their location, particles are divided into:

a) prepositive: (yes, well, come on, let, let, no, neither, etc.): I asked Taganrog flower growers about the moonflower, but none of them knew about it (K.P.). It's clean with the boss business relations(K.S.). What, showed up again? (K.S.);

b) postpositive: (same, whether, would, -ka): You’re not listening to me! If only you knew how beautiful the evenings are in Crimea!;

c) particles whose place is not constant: (after all, already, perhaps, etc.): But now can this have at least some significance? (K.P.).

Based on their formation, particles can be divided into two groups:

primitives (non-derivatives): well, not, neither;

derivatives formed by transition from other parts of speech: simply, decisively, that, itself, it, etc.

The pronouns it, everything, everything, how, that, this, yourself, etc. have become particles; For example:

- Who came from the regional museum? (D.Gr.).

“This is not how these issues are resolved,” he said, increasingly annoyed, looking at her faded hair (D.Gr.).

He just wanted to see how the guys were happy (D.Gr.). Let him go to the dacha... (Yu.G.). Oh, this is my youth! (K.P.);

Adverbs literally, quite, in general, only, yet, precisely, okay, definitely, truly, simply, directly, evenly, decisively, precisely, only, really; for example: ...there was literally nowhere to sit (K.S.).

Then in the afternoon I talked for quite a long time with several sailors of our timber carrier (K.S.). It was not just a dugout, but a large two-room room (K.S.). ... there was absolutely nothing at the studio to film a fight scene (K.S.);

The verbs were, happened, after all (to know), you see (you see), give, give, they say, let, let, perhaps, etc.; for example: Let one of them, but come (D.Gr.). Figurovsky started to walk, but stopped (D.Gr.). In your places, - she smiled, - almost all my life (Yu.N.);

Nouns good; for example: Welcome, come, we are waiting for you;

Numerals are the same; for example: The workers left, the building was empty, only the cleaners were hardworkingly cleaning, washing, and putting away everything unnecessary.

Particulation as a process of replenishment of particles due to the transition of words from other parts of speech can be called a productive process, if we keep in mind the quantitative ratio of particles in general and particles formed through diachronic transformation. When turning into a particle, the original word loses its denomination (the ability to have a nominative or pronominal way of reflecting reality), the ability to change (if it possessed it), to be a member of a sentence or its component, etc.; acquires the ability to express different shades of meaning (emotionally expressive, modal, etc.).

2. Homonymy: particles with independent parts of speech

It is also necessary to take into account the derivative nature of some particles, their correlation with other parts of speech (pronouns, numerals, adverbs, verbs, conjunctions, interjections). When establishing a part of speech, you can use the method of asking questions and the method of synonymous replacement. You can ask a question about the significant part of speech, but not about the particle. A particle can be replaced by another particle, the word of the significant part of speech - by the word of the corresponding part of speech.

For example: The britzka drove straight, but for some reason the mill began to move to the left(A. Chekhov) and It was scary: my heart just stopped(S. Smirnov).

In the first sentence the word directly - adverb, as it denotes a sign of action, indicates the direction of movement, answers a question Where?, replaced by an adverb forward and in a sentence it is a circumstance of place.

In the second sentence the word directly - the particle, since it serves to emphasize the semantic expressiveness of the statement, allows its removal from the sentence.

In a sentence Everywhere you look, everything sparkles, everything sparkles(D. Zuev) word All- a pronoun, since it points to an object, answers a question What?, replaced by a noun (for example, snow), acts as the subject in a sentence.

In a sentence Through the brown leaves, the high sky above the steppe spread out a canvas, and the sun descended lower and lower(A. Sofronov) word All - particle, since it serves to emphasize the semantic expressiveness of the statement, introduces an additional amplification value, it can be removed from the sentence, and can also be replaced with another particle (for example, same).

Particles must be distinguished not only from significant ones, but also from auxiliary parts of speech, in particular from conjunctions.

Wed: As soon as the sun splashes in a sweeping manner, thunder hides at the gates again...(S. Ostrovoy) and Over water, lightning flashes occurred only in the upper layers of the atmosphere, between the clouds(V. Ardamatsky).

In the first sentence the word only- a conjunction, since it serves to connect parts of a complex sentence, is replaced by a conjunction When. In the second sentence the word only - particle, since it serves to highlight, limit, is replaced by a particle only.

In addition, one should distinguish between the homonymy of the particle no (I don’t know, I wasn’t) And consoles not- (not stupid, nowhere); particles not (not a penny) consoles no- (nobody, never) and union neither (there is no wind or snow outside); particles - That. (Have you learned the words?) union then (it rains, then it snows) and postfix -that (someone, somewhere).

Many particles are related in origin to significant words. For example, the particle ish (the earlier form - vish) is historically related to the verb to see, and the particle -s, widely used in the 19th century to express respect (yes-s, no-s, etc.), was formed as a result of the abbreviation of the noun sir .

In these cases, the formation of the particle was accompanied by significant transformations in the phonetic form of the original word; but there are also many particles that sound the same as the original significant words and are their functional homonyms.

For example, the particle itself emphasizes the free nature of the action, independent of external circumstances: “Yes, you, in general,<...>Don’t upset yourself with these questions. Live for yourself, go for a walk” (M.A. Bulgakov). This particle is homonymous to the form of the dative and prepositional cases of the reflexive pronoun: “Sergei Lvovich coldly replied that<...>brother Vasily decided to keep the money with himself” (Yu.N. Tynyanov).

The particle simply has the meaning “really, in fact”, “only; nothing more than”: “There is no hope for this” (M.A. Bulgakov); “You’re just a fool, let me tell you” (N.V. Gogol). This particle is homonymous to the adverb simply: “And I couldn’t figure out how to open it: but the casket just opened” (I.A. Krylov).

This particle indicates the connection of the predicate with the subject, for example: “Literature is the conscience of society, its soul” (D.S. Likhachev), and also emphasizes and strengthens one or another word in the sentence: “It was because of you that Ikonnikov came out, because of you they drove him away” (Yu.N. Tynyanov). This particle should be distinguished from the homonymous pronoun: “It’s enough that he maintained decent calm all this time” (N.V. Gogol).

To differentiate between particles and significant words, the analyzed word is replaced with a word synonymous with it, which would clearly indicate what part of speech it is, or with a phrase indicating that the word being replaced is a member of a sentence (since a particle cannot be a member of a sentence). For example, in the sentence “Sorry for the immodesty,” continued Rudolphi, “but how do you do that you have such a parting?” (M.A. Bulgakov) the adverb how can be replaced with the phrase how. In sentences “How the Cossacks jumped up! How everyone got involved! How the kuren chieftain Kukubenko began to boil when he saw that his better half was gone!” (N.V. Gogol) such a replacement is impossible; here the word how is a particle characterizing the intensity of the action.

Along with homonymy of particles and significant words, homonymy of particles and conjunctions is widely represented in the language, since conjunctions, losing their connecting function, can turn into particles. Comparative particles are especially characteristic in this regard. Coinciding in form with comparative conjunctions (except for the particle like, which coincides in form with the preposition), comparative particles, unlike conjunctions, do not introduce separate phrases or subordinate clauses; these particles warn that the words that follow them should not be understood literally, but as a means of figurative characterization based on similarity: “A steep climb up the mountain, through clay; here streams flow noisily in winding ditches, the water seems to have chewed up the road” (A.P. Chekhov). Very often, these particles lose the meaning of comparison and indicate the speaker’s uncertainty in what is being communicated, conjecture: “I definitely saw your eyes somewhere... but this cannot be!” (F.M. Dostoevsky).

Homonymic relationships with conjunctions are also characteristic of many other particles (for example, a, and, yes). At parsing it is necessary to distinguish between conjunctions and homonymous particles, without which a correct understanding of the structure of a sentence is often impossible. So, in the sentence “When you wander, you return home, and the smoke of the Fatherland is sweet and pleasant to us” (A.S. Griboyedov), the first is an intensifying particle (this is evidenced by the possibility of even replacing it with a particle), the second represents a conjunction.

3. Particles with functional parts of speech

Functional parts of speech are words that play an auxiliary role in significant parts of speech and serve significant words. Function words are characterized by a set of specific features:

do not have nominative semantics;

immutable;

are not a component of the utterance.

But function words are used in speech quite often and make up about 25% of total number words in speech.

Functional parts of speech include prepositions, conjunctions and particles.

Functional parts of speech are categories of words that serve to express the relationship between concepts that express significant words, and are used only in conjunction with them. They are not members of the sentence.

Functional parts of speech include:

prepositions, conjunctions, particles.

1. Prepositions are function words that, in combination with indirect cases of nominal parts of speech, express various relationships between the forms of the name and other words.

By origin, prepositions are divided into:

primitives (unmotivated from the point of view of the modern Russian language): in, on, before, etc.;

derivatives (you can trace word-formation connections with the significant words from which these prepositions are formed).

Derivative prepositions, in turn, are divided into:

adverbial (along, around),

denominative (sort of, like),

verbal (excluding, thanks).

According to their structure, derived prepositions are divided into:

simple (except, about)

compound (at the time, for the reason).

Almost all prepositions are used with one specific case, but they can express different relationships:

spatial (living in a village),

temporary (wait in the morning),

objective (tell about what happened),

causal (to die from a wound),

targeted (send for repairs), etc.

2. Conjunctions are function words that express grammatical relationships between members of a sentence, parts of a complex sentence or individual sentences in a text.

Union ranks

By origin, unions are divided into:

non-derivative (unmotivated in modern Russian): and, or, yes;

derivatives (you can trace the formational connections with the significant words from which these conjunctions are formed): so that, as if.

According to their structure, derivative conjunctions are divided into:

simple (as if)

compound (since, in order to).

Conjunctions are distinguished by use:

single (or non-repeating): but, however;

repeating: and...and, neither...nor;

double (or paired): if...then, how...and.

Coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.

According to their syntactic function, conjunctions are divided into:

a) - coordinating (linking syntactically equal units: homogeneous members of a sentence, simple sentences as part of complex sentences).

According to their meaning, coordinating conjunctions are divided into:

connective (express enumeration relations): and, yes (in the meaning and), and...and, too, also;

adversatives (express relations of opposition): a, but, however, same;

divisive (express relations of mutual exclusion): or, or...or, then...that;

explanatory (express explanatory relationships): exactly, like that;

connecting (expressing relations of accession) yes and, and also.

b) - subordinates (they connect syntactically unequal units: the main and subordinate parts of a complex sentence, members of a simple sentence).

By meaning, subordinating conjunctions are divided into:

temporary: when, as soon as, not yet;

explanatory: how, what, so that;

causal: since, because;

consequences: so;

concessive: let, although, despite the fact that;

comparative: as if, as if;

target: in order to, in order to;

conditional: if, once.

3. Particles are function words that give sentences additional semantic or emotional shades.

Particles are divided into:

demonstrative: here, there, this;

clarifying: just, exactly,

restrictive: only, only;

amplification: even, after all,

negative: not, neither; c) modal: yes, no;

interrogative: really, whether;

formative: would, let, -ka, etc.

4. Interjections, onomatopoeic words

An interjection is a special part of speech that combines unchangeable words that express our feelings, expressions of will, etc., without naming them. This is neither an independent nor an auxiliary part of speech; interjections have no lexical or grammatical meanings, they are not parts of a sentence.

Interjection categories:

emotional (express feelings of joy, sadness, anger, etc.): Oh! Oh! Aral;

imperative (express orders, greetings, prohibitions, etc.): Hey! Stop!

Based on their origin, interjections are divided into:

primitives: Ah! Hooray! Ogol;

derivatives: Trouble! Lid! Kaput!

A special group consists of onomatopoeic words, which are imitations of sounds; they are distinguished from interjections by the fact that they do not express any feelings: qua-qua, woof-woof.

Functional parts of speech, unlike independent ones, do not have a specific lexical and general grammatical meaning, do not change, are not separate members of the sentence, they perform only service functions in the sentence.

Prepositions are used to express the relationship of a noun, numeral and some pronouns to other words in speech. Prepositions help connect words in a phrase, clarify the meaning of a statement, and add adverbial meanings. So, in the sentence I’ll come to Moscow at five o’clock in the evening there are no excuses for the train being late. Although in general the phrase is understandable, still the prepositions from (expresses spatial relations - from Moscow), in (expresses temporal relations - at five in the evening), as a result of, because of (expresses circumstantial, causal relations - due to being late) would help comprehend what was said faster and more accurately.

The use of a preposition, taking into account grammatical norms, is a prerequisite for good and correct speech. Thus, the preposition in correlates only with the preposition from, and the preposition with correlates only with the preposition on. One can say (came) to school - from school (but not “from school”), (came) from the Caucasus - to the Caucasus (but not “from the Caucasus”); You can’t say “due to being late” - only because of being late.

We must remember that the prepositions according to, in spite of, thanks to are used with nouns in the dative case: according to the order, despite criticism, thanks to a friend. Prepositions usually come before | the word with which they are used. Conjunctions are function words that connect homogeneous members of a sentence or parts of a complex sentence. Coordinating conjunctions (and, neither--nor, also, also, but, but, however, or, either, that-and-that) connect homogeneous members of a sentence and parts of a complex sentence: A light breeze woke up and then subsided. (I. Turgenev.) Only the heart beats, and the song sounds, and the string quietly rumbles. (A. Surkov.) Coordinating conjunctions are divided into three categories according to their meaning:

1) connective (“and this and that”): yes (= and), and--and, neither--nor, also, also, not only-but and, as-and;

2) adversative (“not this, but this”): but, a, yes (= but), but, however; 3) dividing (“either this, or that”): either, either, this, not that, not that.

Subordinating conjunctions (that, that, because, as if) connect parts of a complex sentence: The sun was already high when I opened my eyes. (V. Garshin.)

Subordinating conjunctions are divided into categories according to their meaning:

1) explanatory (indicate what they are talking about): what, in order, as if, as if to others;

2) temporary: when, barely, how, as soon as, before, etc.;

3) causal: because, since, etc.;

4) targeted: in order to, in order to, in order to, etc.;

5) conditional: if, once, if, etc.;

6) concessional: although, despite the fact that, etc.;

7) investigative: so;

8) comparative: as, as if, as if, etc.

In complex sentences, the role of a conjunction connecting parts of a sentence can be played by relative pronouns (which, whose, which, who, what, how much) and adverbs (where, where, when, from where, why, why, why). They are called allied words. Unlike conjunctions, allied words are members of a sentence: We approached the house where my friend lives.

Particles serve to form the forms of words and to express different shades of meaning in a sentence: The same word, but I wouldn’t have said it that way. (Proverb.) - the particle would (say) form a form conditional mood verb; What a delight these tales are! (A. Pushkin.) - the particle expresses delight, adds an exclamatory meaning; Let everyone be happy! -- let the particle form the imperative mood of the verb to be.

The particles involved in the formation of verb forms are called formative.

Particles transmitting different meanings, are called modal. Modal particles can express*:

1) negation: no, neither;

2) strengthening: even, after all, after all;

3) question: really, really;

4) exclamation: so what?

5) doubt: unlikely, hardly;

6) clarification: exactly, just;

7) allocation, limitation: only, only;

8) indication: there, there.

Particles neither and nor are often found in our speech. The particle does not convey negation: not you, couldn’t, not a friend, but in double negation (couldn’t help but know) and in interrogative-exclamation sentences (Who doesn’t know Pushkin’s fairy tales!, i.e. everyone knows) the particle does not lose its negative meaning .

The particle no most often has an intensifying meaning; it strengthens the negation when it is expressed by the particle not or words in the meaning “no, it’s impossible”:

Neither rain nor snow stopped us; that is, neither rain nor snow stopped us; There is not a cloud in the sky, that is, there are no clouds in the sky. The particle is not found in set expressions (neither alive nor dead), in the subordinate part of a sentence like

No matter how many times I read this book, I am always interested, that is, although I have read this book many times, I am still interested. Particles are not and are written separately from the words they refer to.

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Transcript

2 RYAZAN STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY named after. S.A. ESENINA L.A. SERGIEVSKAYA GRAMMAR ANALYSIS (CHARTS) Ryazan

3 Published by decision of the editorial and publishing council of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. S.A. Yesenina L.A. Sergievskaya. Grammar analysis (schemes). - Ryazan: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. S.A. Yesenina, s. Schemes for multidimensional analysis of the basic units of language are proposed, with teaching and monitoring purposes. Schemes contribute to mastering the skills of grammatical analysis of specific linguistic facts. Texts are provided to practice analysis. Intended for philology students as practical guide in the course “Modern Russian Language”. Scientific editor: P.A. Lekant, doctor of philology. Sciences, Professor (MPU) Ryazan State pedagogical university them. S.A. Yesenina, 2000 2

4 PHONETIC ANALYSIS Phonetic analysis is the analysis of syllables, sounds, phonemes specific word. 1. Phonetic transcription (in accordance with the rules of literary pronunciation). 2. Stress: its place in a word; movable or immobile; main, secondary (if any). 3. The number of syllables in a word (the division into syllables is given in the transcription). Characteristics of each syllable in order: a) initial, middle, final; b) open or closed; c) covered or uncovered; d) stressed or unstressed. 4. Number of sounds, phonemes, letters. 5. Characteristics of each sound in order: 1) vowel or consonant 2) characteristics: a) vowel sound - rise, row, labialized or non-labialized; b) consonant sound, sonorant or noisy; voiceless or voiced (paired or unpaired); labial or lingual (specify variety); stop, fricative, stop-pass (nasal, lateral), tremulous; soft or hard (paired or unpaired). 3) position: a) vowel sound is strong (stressed) or weak; b) consonant sound, strong or weak (according to deafness and voicedness); strong or weak (in terms of hardness and softness). 6. The relationship of a sound to a phoneme: an allophone of which phoneme this sound is. 3

5 7. Features of pronunciation (if any). STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Structural analysis is a morphemic, word-formation and etymological analysis of a specific word. MORPHEMIC ANALYSIS 1. Ending: zero or materially expressed. 2. Base: derivative or non-derivative. 3. Root: morph, allomorph. Similar words. Indicate historical rotation, if any. 4. Suffix: formative, word-forming, syncretic. Meaning. 5. Prefix: formative, word-forming, syncretic. Meaning. 6. If there is: postfix, interfix, affixoid (prefixoid, suffixoid). WORD-FORMATION ANALYSIS 1. Base: derivative (motivated) or non-derivative (unmotivated); free or bound (about a non-derivative basis). 2. Producing (motivating) basis. 3. Word-forming affix (affixes). 4. Type and method of word formation: 1) morphological: a) suffixal; 4

6 b) prefix; c) suffixal-prefixal; d) affixless; e) addition; f) abbreviation; 2) non-morphological: a) lexical-syntactic; b) lexical-semantic; c) morphological-syntactic. ETYMOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 1. Word: Slavic (Russian, East Slavic, Common Slavic) or borrowed (from what language: French, German, English, etc.). 2. The original structure and original meaning of the word. 3. The original form or one that appeared as a result of any change in the morphological structure of the word: simplification, re-decomposition, complication, decorrelation, diffusion, substitution. MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS Morphological analysis this is the analysis of a word as a part of speech: a consistent determination of the lexical-grammatical and grammatical categories of a specific word form, classifying them as permanent or non-permanent features. Schemes of morphological analysis for 12 parts of speech are proposed. 1. Part of speech. 1. NOUN 2. Initial form ( nominative singular). 5

7 3. CONSTANT SIGNS. 1) Proper or common noun. 2) Animate or inanimate. 3) Abstract (abstract), concrete (including individual), material, collective. 4) Personal or impersonal. 5) Gender (masculine, feminine, neuter, common, no gender). 6) Type and variant of declination. 4. Irregular signs. 1) Case: means of expression, the meaning of case, main and variant case endings. 2) Number: means of expression, features. 5. Function in a sentence. 2. ADJECTIVE 1. Part of speech. 2. Initial form (nominative singular masculine). 3. CONSTANT SIGNS. 1) Qualitative, relative or possessive. 2) Type of declination (main, additional); declension option (hard, soft, mixed, sizzling and C). 4. Irregular signs. 1) For qualitative ones: degree of comparison (simple or complex for comparative or superlatives). 2) For high-quality ones: full or short form. 3) Case. 4) Number. 5) Rod. 5. Function in a sentence. 6

8 3. NUMERAL NAME 1. Part of speech. 2. Initial form (nominative case). 3. CONSTANT SIGNS. 1) Simple, complex or compound. 2) Discharge: quantitative, fractional, collective, ordinal; indefinite word. 3) Features of declination. 4. Irregular signs. 1) Case. 2) Gender (if any). 3) Number (if any). 5. Function in a sentence. 4. PRONOUN 1. Part of speech. 2. Initial form (nominative singular). 3. CONSTANT SIGNS. 1) Place by value. 2) Which part of speech does it correspond to? 3) Gender (for personal pronouns of the 3rd person). 4) Features of declination. 7

9 4. INSTANT SIGNS. 1) Case. 2) Number (if any). 3) Gender (for pronouns correlative with adjectives). 5. Function in a sentence. 5. VERB 1. Part of speech. CONJUGATIVE FORM OF VERB 2. Indefinite form (infinitive). 3. CONSTANT SIGNS. 1) View. 2) Returnability. 3) Transitivity. 4) Collateral; shade of the value of the average returnable deposit. 5) Class (indicate the basis of the present or future simple tense and the basis of the infinitive). 6) Conjugation. 4. Irregular signs. 1) Inclination. 2) Number. 3) Time (if any). 4) Face (if any). 5) Gender (if any). 6) Features of the use of personal forms of the verb. 5. Function in a sentence. 8

10 UNCONJUGATABLE FORM OF THE VERB A. I N F I N I T I V 1. Part of speech. Indeterminate form. 2. CONSTANT SIGNS. 1) View. 2) Returnability. 3) Transitivity. 4) Collateral; shade of meaning in the mid-reflexive voice. 5) Class (indicate two bases). 6) Conjugation. 2. Function in a sentence. B. PRICH A S T I E 1. Part of speech (special form of the verb). 2. Initial form (nominative singular masculine). 3. CONSTANT SIGNS. 1) Active or passive. 2) View. 3) Time. 4) Transitivity. 5) Returnability. 6) Collateral. A shade of medium-refundable deposit. 7) Class. 8) From what basis and how is it formed. 4. Irregular signs. 1) Full or short form (for passive participles). 2) Case (for participles in full form). 9

11 3) Type of declination. 4) Number. 5) Rod. 5. Function in a sentence. V. D E E P R I C H A S T I E 1. Part of speech (a special form of the verb). 2. View. 3. Returnability. 4. Transitivity. 5. Deposit. A shade of medium-refundable deposit. 6. Class (indicate two bases). 7. Time. 8. From what basis and how is it formed. 9. Function in a sentence. 6. ADVERB 1. Part of speech. 2. General meaning (sign of an action, sign or object). 3. Place by value. 4. Degree of comparison (if any). Original form. 5. Function in a sentence. 10

12 7. CATEGORY OF CONDITION 1. Part of speech. 2. Group by value (state of the environment, situation, state of humans, living beings, etc.). 3. Which part of speech does it correspond to? 4. Inclination. A way of expressing mood. 5. Time. A way to express time. 6. View. A way of expressing a type. 7. Degree of comparison (if any). Original form. 8. Function in a sentence. 1. Part of speech. 2. Place by value. 8. MODAL WORDS 3. Which part of speech does it correspond to? 4. Function in a sentence. 9. PREPOSITION 1. Part of speech. 2. Derivative or non-derivative. 3. Simple or composite (about derivatives). 4. Meaning (expressed relationships). 11

13 5. In what case is it used? Can it be used with other cases (if so, which ones)? 10. UNION 1. Part of speech. 2. Type by structure. 3. Coordinating or subordinating. Rank by value. 4. Type of use: single, repeating, double. 5. Function in a sentence. 11. PARTICLE 1. Part of speech. 2. Place by value. 3. Which word, phrase (or entire sentence) does it refer to? 4. Position in speech: prepositive or postpositive. 12. INTERJETION 1. Part of speech. 2. Place by value. 3. Type by structure (primordial, derivative, composite). 4. Syntactic function. 12

14 SYNOPSIS Parsing this is a structural-semantic analysis of a specific syntactic unit: determining the structure, composition, function, meaning, establishing the type and means of communication of its components. 1. Collocation. COMBINATION 2. Initial form (according to initial form main word). 3. Simple or complex. How is it educated about the complex? 4. Free or not free (whole). 5. Main and dependent word(s). 6. Nominal (substantive, adjective, pronominal, with a numeral), verbal, adverbial or with a state category. 7. Attributive, adverbial, objective, subjective or comprehensive. 8. Grammatical meaning: subject + attribute, action + subject, action + circumstance, subject + quantity. 9. Type of connection between words: 1) agreement complete or incomplete; 2) control a) verb, substantive, adjective, adverbial; 13

15 b) prepositional or non-prepositional; c) strong or weak; d) case of dependent word; e) the way words are connected (inflection, preposition, word order); 3) adjacency a) which part of speech is adjoined; b) method of communication (intonation, word order); c) strong or weak. SIMPLE SENTENCE 1. Simple sentence. 2. Narrative, interrogative or incentive. 3. Exclamatory or non-exclamatory. 4. Affirmative or negative (general negative or particular negative). 5. Two-part, one-part or indivisible. Type of one-part sentence: 1) definitely personal (form of the main member); 2) indefinite-personal (form of the main member); 3) generalized-personal (form of the main member); 4) impersonal (form of the main member); 5) infinitive (form of the main member); 6) nominative (form of the main member, functional type, stylistic purpose); 7) vocative (its function). 6. Common or not common. 7. Complete or incomplete. Type of incomplete: 1) contextual or situational; 2) monologue or dialogic; 3) elliptical. 8. Complicated or uncomplicated. 14

16 9. Analysis of sentence members. MEMBERS OF A SENTENCE 1. The predicative basis of a sentence: subject and predicate (in a two-part sentence) or the main member (in a one-part sentence, with which it corresponds). 2. Subject: morphologized or non-morphologized. How is it expressed? 3. Predicate: morphologized or non-morphologized. Type of predicate: 1) simple verb (agreed or inconsistent); 2) complicated verb; 3) compound verb; 4) complex verb; 5) compound nominal; 6) complex (polynomial). How is it expressed? 4. Composition of the subject and composition of the predicate. 5. Addition: 1) adjective, verb, adverbial; 2) what question it answers; 3) direct or indirect; 4) what is expressed; 5) morphologized or non-morphologized. 6. Definition: 1) agreed or inconsistent; 2) what question it answers; 3) what is expressed; 4) morphologized or non-morphologized; 5) semantics. 7. Appendix: 1) semantics; 2) what question it answers; 15

17 3) agreed or inconsistent; 4) what is expressed; 5) morphologized or non-morphologized; 6) punctuation marks when applying (if any). 8. Circumstance: 1) category by meaning (place, time, reason, etc.); 2) what question it answers; 3) what is expressed; 4) morphologized or non-morphologized. 9. Determinant: 1) indicators of word form as a determinant (position in a sentence, undifferentiated attachment to other members of the structure, etc.); 2) semantic variety (objective, attributive, local, temporal, etc.); 3) how it is expressed. 10. Syncretic member of a sentence: combines the functions of 1) addition and definition; 2) additions and circumstances; 3) definitions and circumstances; 4) additions, definitions and circumstances. Which function is dominant? COMPOUND SENTENCE 1. Compound sentence. 2. Number and boundaries of predicative parts. Each part is read in order. Binomial or polynomial. The parts are numbered in order. 3. Open or closed structure. 4. Relationships between parts: 1) connecting (enumeration, simultaneity or sequence of actions, cause-and-effect relationships); 2) adversative (contrast, comparison, inconsistency, etc.); 3) dividing (alternation of phenomena, mutually exclusive) 16

18 reading, uncertainty, etc.); 4) affiliation relations; explanation; clarification; 5) gradational relations. 5. A means of connecting predicative parts. 6. Specifics of punctuation (if any). 7. Scheme. COMPLEX SENTENCE 1. Complex sentence. 2. Binomial or polynomial (parts are numbered). 3. Two-member sentence: 1) undivided or dismembered structure; 2) main sentence (read out); 3) subordinate clause (read out); a) what it refers to; b) what question does it answer; c) type (according to three classifications: school, traditional and university); d) syncretism (if any) when determining the type of subordinate clause; 4) flexible or inflexible structure; 5) single-functional or multi-functional; 6) a means of connecting parts; 7) specifics of punctuation (if any). 4. Polynomial sentence: 1) number and boundaries of predicative parts (each unit is read in order); 2) main sentence; 3) subordinate clauses (each in order): a) what question it answers; b) type (according to three classifications); c) a means of communication with the main sentence; 4) type of connection between subordinate clauses and the main one: a) consistent submission(how many degrees?); b) homogeneous subordination; c) heterogeneous subordination. 17

19 5) specifics of punctuation (if any). 5. Scheme. NON-CONJUNCTION COMPLEX SENTENCE 1. Non-union complex sentence. 2. Number and boundaries of predicative parts. Each part is read in order (parts are numbered). Binomial or polynomial. 3. Homogeneous, heterogeneous or complex composition. 4. Structural-semantic type: 1) homogeneous composition a) general meaning enumeration (simultaneity, sequence, compatibility of actions); b) the general meaning of the comparison (contrast, effectiveness); 2) heterogeneous composition a) the general value of conditionality (direct or reverse conditionality); b) the general meaning of cause-and-effect relationships (cause in the second part or effect); c) explanatory type; d) connecting type; 3) complex composition; structural and semantic relationships between all parts are determined. 4. Flexible or inflexible structure. 5. Means of communication of predicative parts: 1) intonation; 2) the order of the parts; 3) index word in the first part; 4) incompleteness of the first part; 5) aspectual and tense forms of predicate verbs; 6) structural parallelism; 7) typed lexical elements. 18

20 6. Punctuation marks. 7. Scheme. COMPLEX POLYNOMAL SENTENCE WITH DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONNECTION 1. Complex polynomial sentence with various types of connection: 1) with composition and subordination; 2) with an essay and non-union connection; 3) with subordination and non-union connection; 4) with composition, subordination and non-union connection. 2. Number and boundaries of predicative units. Each part is read. 3. Structural and semantic parts of a complex sentence, characterized by a closer semantic connection between the predicative parts. Type of sentence based on the dominant connection between parts. 4. Structural-semantic relations between simple sentences as part of a complex structure: 1) sentences with coordinating connection are analyzed according to the scheme for parsing a complex sentence; 2) sentences with a non-conjunction connection are analyzed according to the scheme for analyzing a non-conjunction complex sentence; 3) sentences with subordinating connection are analyzed according to the scheme for parsing complex sentences. 5. Scheme. Notes: 1. Parts of a complex sentence are numbered in order. The analysis uses serial numbers predicative units. 2. The scheme of a complex sentence indicates all the main 19

21 features of the analyzed structure. 3. In the analysis of phrases and sentence members, generally accepted graphical notations are used. EXERCISES 1. For phonetic analysis. I met you and everything that was before came to life in an obsolete heart; I remembered the golden time And my heart became so warm (F.I. Tyutchev) Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers! Along the azure steppe, along a chain of pearl, You rush, as if, like me, exiles, From the sweet north to the south. (M.Yu. Lermontov) The golden grove dissuaded with Birch, cheerful language, And the cranes, flying sadly, No longer regret anyone. (S.A. Yesenin) 2. For structural analysis. Painlessness, Prioksky, zoo, correspondence student, develop, embellish, sender, productive, get stronger, snowdrop, embroidery, foothills, quiet, delivery, dried up, delivery, fleeting, read, co-authorship, overload, crazy, to pieces, savvy, dining room, exhale, attention, ice cream, drink, apology, delinquent, retraining, sign, adding, evergreen, run-up, schedule, water, predawn, count, calculation, reality, charming, transform, find, covered, 20

22 form, concentrate, listen, army, agreement, truthful, achieve, reddish, rejoice. 3. For morphological analysis. The secret of character is also the secret of behavior, the key to that complex that influences us in another person, inspires trust and respect for him, a desire to follow him; and this is not born by the mind, it is deeper than the mind, and it is somehow connected with what you yourself should now strive to be (M. Shaginyan). 1) Determine the conjugation, voice, class: fight, live, hold, sleep, pour, dress, shave, detain, roll, make friends, want, run away, build, draw, melt, dress, end, succeed, dream, achieve, stop , speak, squeal, slander, weave, lay, stab, catch up, draw, get smarter, turn. 2) Form participles and gerunds from verbs: to restrain, to restrain, to restrain, to restrain; read, read; limit, limit; burn, burn out; decide, decide; teach, educate. 3) Decline the numerals: three hundred eighty-five, five hundred and sixty-seven. 4) Give an analysis of the words of the state category: Now it’s hard for me to fall in love, It’s awkward and funny to sigh, It’s foolish to believe in hope, It’s a sin to deceive husbands. (A.S. Pushkin) 5) Give an analysis of modal words: You will guess, of course, 21

23 Who was this unexpected guest? A little, perhaps hastily, the bold lover acted; But, however, if you take into account His past patience and judge, you will easily understand why young people take risks. (M. Lermontov) 6) Give an analysis of interjections: Farewell, free elements! (A. Pushkin); Well, follow me (A. Pushkin); Oh, if only the day would come sooner (I. Krylov); Oh, children, children! (A. Pushkin); Yeah, now I understand (F. Krivin); Alas, she is no longer there (A. Pushkin); Guard! Catch, catch (A. Pushkin); Hey, comrade, don’t hesitate too long (V. Mayakovsky); Ah, youth does not come again (A. Pushkin). 7) Use and analyze the words “difficult”, “quiet”, “good” as an adverb, short adjective, state category word. 4. For a general analysis. It was still winter, but the sun began to rise higher and at noon, when the detachment that had set out early in the morning had already walked about ten miles, it warmed up so much that it became hot, and its rays were so bright that it was painful to look at the steel of the bayonets and the sparkles that suddenly flashed on the copper of the guns like little suns (L. Tolstoy). The outskirts of Ryazan villages often merge with each other, the villages are scattered densely, and there is no place from which one, or even two or three still surviving bell towers are not visible on the horizon (K. Paustovsky). Lisa admitted that her action seemed frivolous to her, that she repented of it, that this time she did not want to break her word, but that this meeting would be the last and that she asked him to end the acquaintance, which 22

24 cannot lead them to anything good (A. Pushkin). SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. If you want to be argued with and understood as you should be, then you yourself must be conscientiously attentive to your opponent and accept his words and evidence exactly in the meaning in which he addresses them to you (B . Belinsky). 2. Lermontov, no matter where he turns his thoughts, always remains on the solid ground of reality, and this is what we owe to the exceptional accuracy, freshness and truthfulness of his epic poems, as well as the merciless sincerity of his lyrics, which is always a true mirror of his soul (A. Herzen). 3. When I see people around me, not knowing what to do with theirs free time, they look for the most miserable activities and entertainment, I look for a book and say internally: this alone is enough for a whole life (F. Dostoevsky). 4. When I first had to deal with the work of actors, I did not understand why the actor playing a minor character (in the play he is given two or three phrases) pestered me with questions about what environment this hero came from, who his parents were, what his character, what his habits and tastes are and why he has a hoarse voice (K. Paustovsky). 5. No matter how powerful Chekhov’s talent was, his works would never have reached such perfection of the classical form if by the mid-eighties he had not become the owner of a subtle, sophisticated taste, which none of his contemporaries possessed (K. Chukovsky) . 6. Zhenya liked me as an artist, I won her heart with my talent, and I passionately wanted to write only for her, and I dreamed of her as my little queen, who, together with me, would own these trees, fields, fog, dawn , this nature, charming, but among which I still felt hopelessly lonely and unnecessary. 23

25 7. My dear Jim, among your guests there were so many different things. But the one who is the most silent and saddest of all, did not suddenly come here by chance? 24

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Graphic analysis

1. Indicate the name of the letter (grapheme), its sound meaning in a given word (the quantity and quality of the designated sounds).

2. Determine whether the given sound meaning of a letter is primary (alphabetic) or secondary (non-alphabetic, substitutive).

3. Indicate the number of alphabetical meanings of a given letter (is it single-valued or double-valued in the alphabet).

4. Mark spellings that violate the syllabic principle of graphics.

Spelling analysis

1. Indicate all spellings present in the word (regardless of their degree of relevance).

2. Determine which morpheme each spelling is found in.

3. Indicate the type of writing (verifiable / unverifiable / unverifiable).

4. Determine spelling principles and rules governing the writing of spelling.

5. * Etymological commentary on traditional spellings.

Orthoepic analysis

1. Indicate a word that has an orthoepic variant.

2. Determine the type of orthoepic variant: pronunciation, accentological, morphological.

3. For pronunciation options, indicate the variety (actually orthoepic or orthophonic), determine the area of ​​pronunciation variation (pronunciation of vowels, consonants or combinations of sounds).

4. * Etymological, sociolinguistic or stylistic commentary on the reasons for the occurrence of variation in a given word.

Lexico-semantic analysis of LSV

1. Analyzed word form, LSV and dictionary form (vocabula).

2. The meaning of the word form: lexical and grammatical.

3. Interpretation of the LP and determination of the method of interpretation (through a generative basis, descriptive (definition), synonymous-antonymous, identifying, referential, mixed).

4. Characteristics of LZ

a) basic (primary) - non-basic (secondary), for the non-basic, indicate the method of formation of the LSV: narrowing, expansion, shift, transfer of meaning;

b) motivated (having internal shape) – unmotivated;

c) nominative – non-nominative (emotive);

d) free – not free (phraseologically related, syntactically conditioned, structurally limited);

e) direct - figurative (metaphor, symphora, metonymy, synecdoche).

Family structure of LZ

a) hyperseme (archiseme) – differential semes;

b) * denotative – referential, significative, connotative semes.

5. Syntagmatics of LSV: implementation of obligatory (obligatory) or potential valences of LZ and GZ.

Lexical parsing of a word

1. Dictionary form of the word (vocabula); * word variant (if available).

2. The place of the word in the lexical system of the language.

Paradigmatics

a) thematic group and lexical-semantic group

b) lexical-semantic paradigm

c) homonymous paradigm

d) paronymic paradigm

d) synonymous series

e) antonymous pair

g) word-formation nest

h) lexico-grammatical class and system of word forms (morphological paradigm)

Characteristics of the word from the point of view

a) origin (original Russian or borrowed)

b) relevance of use (active or passive stock)

c) areas of use (commonly used or not commonly used, limited in use).

d) stylistic coloring (neutral or stylistically colored).

3. The functioning of a word as a component of a phraseological unit.

Analysis of phraseological units (PU)

1. The meaning of phraseological units.

2. Dictionary form and * variant of phraseology (if any).

3. The type of phraseological unit from the point of view of the semantic unity of its constituent components: phraseological fusion, phraseological unity, phraseological combination, phraseological expression.

4. Structural characteristics of phraseological units.

5. Phraseological paradigmatics: polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy.

6. Characteristics of phraseological units from the point of view of origin, relation to active or passive vocabulary, sociolinguistic affiliation, stylistic coloring.

7. Phraseological syntagmatics and word-formation potential.

8. Syntactic function of a phraseological unit: replaces the position of any member of a sentence; is an analogue of a sentence; forms an indivisible sentence.

Morphemic parsing

Define lexical meaning the analyzed word (according to the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language).

Perform structural division of the word from the end in the following order:

1. Part of speech of the analyzed word – changeable / unchangeable.

2. Ending (inflection), its types:

– by the nature of the formal expression: materially expressed / zero;

– by function: inflectional / inflectional / syncretic;

– by the nature of the grammatical meaning (depending on belonging to a particular part of speech);

– according to the ability to reproduce in speech: regular / irregular.

3. Base, its types:

– by function: base of word form / base of word;

– by structure: articulated / indivisible, simple / complex; intermittent/continuous.

4. Root, its types:

– according to the degree of independence in expressing meaning: free / bound / semi-bound;

– by the nature of variation;

– by the presence/absence of alternations.

5. Suffixes, their types:

– by the nature of the formal expression: materially expressed / zero;

– by structure: non-derivative / derivative;

– by the nature of variation;

– by function: formative / word-formative / syncretic;

– by value;

- by stylistic coloring.

6. Prefixes, their types:

– by structure: derivatives / non-derivatives;

– by function: formative / word-formative / syncretic;

– by the nature of the meaning: grammatical / word-formative (indicate which one);

- by stylistic coloring.

7. Postfixes, their types:

– by function: formative / word-formative;

– by the nature of the meaning: grammatical (plurality, passiveness) / word-formation (reflexivity, uncertainty).

8. Interfixes, their types:

– by function: connecting / insignificant “spacers” that contribute to the formation of words.

Word-formation analysis

1. Determine the lexical meaning of the word.

2. Determine from what other word (stem word, phrase or sentence) the given one is formed.

3. Establish the nature of the semantic and material relationship between the producing and derivative words (the nature of motivational relations)

4. Indicate the means by which the word is formed.

5. Name the method and type of word formation.

6. Determine the degree of derivative of the word being analyzed.

Etymological analysis

1. Find out the origin of the word: original / borrowed.

2. Determine the meaning of the word in modern language.

3. Determine the original meaning by establishing which names of other objects and their characteristics associated with this object formed the basis for its name.

4. Having established the previous related connections of the analyzed word, produce its initial morphemic division.

5. * Note (where possible) historical sound changes.

6. Carry out a morphemic and word-formation analysis of the word being analyzed from the point of view of the modern Russian language.

7. By comparing the modern and original division of the analyzed word, identify the historical changes that have occurred in it - simplification, re-decomposition, complication, decorrelation, etc.

8. * If possible, indicate the reasons for these changes.

Morphological analysis

Noun

1. Initial form.

4. Gender, a formal indicator of gender.

6. Number form.

7. Case form, * case meaning, ** options case endings, *** their use and origin.

8. Syntactic function, syntactic connections and relationships.

9. * Morphemic composition and method of word / form formation.

10. ** Features of the use, pronunciation and spelling of word forms.

11. *** Historical and morphological analysis (form formation).

12. **** Possible grammatical homonymy and transpositions.

Adjective

1. Initial form.

3. Lexico-grammatical category, grammatical features of this category.

5. Type of declension, its formal indicator, * characteristic of the paradigm.

6. Syntactic function, syntactic connections.

Numeral

1. Initial form.

3. Number category according to structure.

7. * Morphemic composition and method of word / form formation.

8. ** Features of the use, pronunciation and spelling of the word form.

9. *** Historical and morphological analysis (form formation).

10. **** Possible grammatical homonymy and transpositions.

Pronoun

1. Initial form.

3. Lexico-grammatical categories: a) by semantics, b) by correlation with other parts of speech.

5. Features of declension, * characteristics of the paradigm.

6. Syntactic function, syntactic connections and relationships.

7. * Morphemic composition and method of word / form formation.

8. ** Features of the use, pronunciation and spelling of the word form.

9. *** Historical and morphological analysis (form formation).

10. **** Possible grammatical homonymy and transpositions.

Verb (infinitive)

4. Species (*paired, single-species, double-species), formal indicators of species, method of speciation, * method of verbal action.

5. Transitivity, voice and its formal indicators.

6. Syntactic function, syntactic connections and relationships.

7. * Morphemic composition and method of word / form formation.

8. ** Features of the use, pronunciation and spelling of the word form.

9. *** Historical and morphological analysis (form formation).

10. **** Possible grammatical homonymy and transpositions.

Verb (conjugated form)

1. Dictionary form.

3. Lexico-grammatical category.

4. Generative verb stem, its formal indicator.

6. Type of conjugation, formal indicator.

7. Species (* paired, single-species, two-species), formal indicators of species, method of speciation, * method of verbal action.

8. Transitivity, voice and its formal indicators.

9. Mood, tense, number, person/gender, their formal indicator.

10. Syntactic function, syntactic connections and relationships.

11. * Morphemic composition and method of word / form formation.

12. ** Features of the use, pronunciation and spelling of word forms.

13. *** Historical and morphological analysis (form formation).

14. **** Possible grammatical homonymy and transpositions.