Capital letters of the Latin alphabet on the keyboard. Where are Latin letters and numbers currently used? Alt codes and their use

Passwords, passwords, passwords – you need them everywhere on the Internet. Every time you have to think about what password to set so that it cannot be hacked. So what should the password be?

Signs of a strong password

• The password must be long, i.e. must contain from 8 to 12 characters.
• A good password contains uppercase (A, P, V, W) and lowercase (m, d, f, j) letters, symbols (#, @, ~, ^), punctuation marks and spaces.
• When creating a password, exclude data containing information about you and your family (names, surnames, memorable dates, phone numbers).
• Refuse the password, including completely written in any language, catchphrases, famous quotes.
• Do not use passwords 12345, qwerty and the like. Yes, everyone knows about this, but such passwords are still popular.
• Avoid passwords that match your login. Of course, such a password is the easiest to type and does not need to be remembered, but it is also easy to hack.

Try to periodically update and use different passwords on all sites and forums.

How to come up with a complex password?

There are several effective ways come up with a strong password:

• Mixing. We type the Cyrillic word in the Latin case, insert after each letter the numbers that are significant for you (house number, apartment number) or transform some letters into numbers (instead of the letter B we put the number 6, instead of I - 9I, etc.)
• We type a word or phrase with spaces in the wrong places. For example, “my role.”
• Enter the phrase by alternately pressing the Shift key. For example, VoT-VedZ@sAdA
• We choose two words - an adjective (free) and a verb (run). Add a significant year, for example 1980, and any symbol. We get: Free19%Run80!
• We come up with a password with spelling errors and supply it with symbols and numbers: CoCoy#&_Password.
• We remember Russian folklore or poetry and encrypt the message. For example, take the proverb “Patience and work will grind everything down.” Let's write every first letter of every word in English in lower case, and every second letter in upper case. Let's put punctuation marks between words. We get: tE!i?tR?vS!pT.

A little difficult? But the password you come up with this way will be secure.

If you can’t come up with a password, use password generators:

How to come up with a login

No registration on the site takes place without using a login. Login is a set of characters (letters or numbers) indicating your name on the network. The login is entered along with the password for further authorization. You need to approach the selection of a login thoroughly.

If the login will be used for work, it is advisable to indicate your real first and last name (Petr-Ivanov, Petr_Ivanov, Petr.Ivanov). Is this login already taken? Add a middle name. And this option is not available? Attach the name of the profession to the name, possibly in abbreviated form. For example: Alexei-Pirogov-PR, Vasiliy-Toropov-photo.

If you need a login for personal purposes, you can:

• Create a login using your favorite word or phrase, name famous person, character, name of the musical group.
• Think about your hobbies and come up with a login based on your preferences in the world of art and technology.
• Create a login from words of any foreign language.
• Use the mirror method and print the name backwards.
• Use the login generator.

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Any person who uses the Internet has probably more than once encountered the need to come up with and set passwords: for logging into mail, for an account on a forum, for online banking. And in almost every registration form you are advised to come up with a strong password. After all, the confidentiality of your correspondence and the safety of your cash, and the security of your computer in general. The question arises: how to come up with a complex password?

How to come up with a strong password

Length. The recommended minimum length for a strong password is 8 characters. It is believed that cracking passwords of 8 or more characters by guessing is a too long process and the chances of an attacker finding such a combination are too small.

Register. A good password should contain both lowercase and uppercase letters.

Special characters. An extremely secure password, along with letters and numbers, also contains special characters. For example #, ~,+, _

Total ideal option there will be a combination of upper and lower case Latin letters, numbers and special characters total length at least 8 characters. For example:

uE_xm932
9203Jb#1
29Rtaq!2

Which should never be used as a password

Never use: as a password or secret word:

• dates of birth
  The most great stupidity— set your own date of birth in the format 12071992 as a password for your VKontakte page, where the same date is indicated in the information :)
• phone numbers
  A password consisting of your phone number will not be cracked only by the lazy. And here it doesn’t matter how many numbers there are :)
• names, surnames, animal names
  It's funny when people think it's magically reliable protection maiden name mother. ...which the whole yard has known for 50 years :)
• and of course, all sorts of nonsense like “qwerty123”, “password”, “password”, “********”, “123”, “12345678”, “fyva”, “asdf”, etc. By the way, the leader among secretaries’ passwords is “one”, i.e. one single digit “1” :)

Conclusion

Don't neglect your safety.

Keyboard layout and password

Do not use the same secret words for authorization on different sites and services. By hacking one website, attackers can gain access to all your online accounts. For example, they will gain access to your cloud drive or Google Photos. And remember: there is nothing more permanent than temporary. Therefore, do not be lazy to come up with strong combinations and set complex passwords straightaway- don’t put this matter off for later. Let your information be available only to you! Good luck!

You might be interested:

Phonetics of Latin

Latin alphabet

Latin alphabet is the basis for writing many other languages ​​from different language groups.

Latin alphabet, originating from the Greek alphabet - and according to some sources - the Etruscan alphabet, formed around the 7th century BC.

Modern latin alphabet includes 26 letters.

Letters of the Latin alphabet:

Initially latin alphabet included only 21 letters:
A B C D E F Z H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X.

Then, over a sufficiently long period latin alphabet underwent the following changes:
- in 312 BC

from him was letter Z excluded and the Latin alphabet was reduced to 20 letters;
- in 234 BC. e.

How to come up with a strong password and login?

was letter G created by adding a crossbar to C (previously the letter C was used to denote two sounds - [k] and [g]);
- in the 1st century BC. e. were added letters Y and Z to write words borrowed from Greek.

In the end it turned out classical latin alphabet of 23 letters:
A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z

In the Middle Ages, the Latin alphabet underwent its final modifications:
- in the 11th century there was an alphabet letter W added;
- in the 16th century there were letters J and U are entered,
and found its modern form.

However, often when talking about alphabet of the Latin language proper, believe that The Latin alphabet consists of 25 letters. This is due to the fact that the letter W, used primarily when writing German and English surnames, in this case is not included in the letters of the Latin alphabet.

Go to other section materials:
Phonetics of Latin
Latin grammar
Roman numerals

Latin password of 8 characters

Lynn "Coffee Man"[dossier]

Yes, you are absolutely right. Thank you for your expression. I’m weak in the regular season, so I did it using the selection method.

AB...[dossier]
And I would simply split the date into three components (split method), and then do a normal check with checking for February and leap years.

The expression was needed to check the date when entering before sending the data. But, let’s say, they entered “sds20.dfsdf546sdf20.sdf.dfgd.dfgfg02.135151351.” I wonder how split would help you here?

Oh, I mistyped, forgot to put the parentheses, a thousand apologies(. There may be other bugs - I haven’t checked the code, this is a demo of an idea.

tcolonel[dossier], with functionally equivalent regular (February, leap years, etc.;)?

How to create a strong password

tcolonel[dossier] Your regular routine is harmful because it creates an imaginary feeling of security, sooner or later you or the one who will accompany you will persist. If the code does not solve the problem properly, then its effectiveness is highly questionable, as is the savings on matches at the expense of quality and safety. This is not a professional approach. I hope you don't take this as a personal insult 😉

Dear author, look at the problem from a different perspective and you yourself will understand that they are telling you a more correct way to solve the problem instead of where you are going. It reminds me of your actions like applying electrical tape to a crack.

message moderated

Accepts date 11.00.2006

Use the following expression, which as a bonus already checks for a high year. Enjoy it, gentlemen!

Good day everyone, please help me create a regular expression for the date format dd.mm.yyyy.
Made it simple:

/(\d(2)\.\d(2)\.\d(4))/

but, I can enter 32.32.yyyy. But you need to limit the input for days - 31, months - 12.

I tried this:

/()\.()\.(\d(4))/

but it doesn't work correctly, from

12.12.2009 01.12.2009 01.02.2009 10.14.2009

finds only 2 matches:

1: 01.12.2009 2: 01.02.2009

Here's what we ended up with:

/(((1)(1))|((1)(1)))\.((1)(1)|((1)(1)))\.(\d(4))/

Maybe someone can come up with a better idea and comment on this expression (it seems to work correctly)?

is a meaningless quantifier.
By the way, your expression is incorrect; you cannot enter the 20th day and the 10th month.

I would write something like this:

/(\d|3)\.(0\d|1)\.(\d(4))/

/(\d|3)\.(0\d|1)\.(\d(4))/ by the way, an interesting expression, I didn’t even know it was possible...

tcolonel[dossier] and everything is much simpler than you imagine. There are several solutions. Here are a couple for example:

1. do not allow the user to enter arbitrary data, block input in this field and at the same time use only the calendar in conjunction.
2. If you give the opportunity for free input, then before sending you do basic checks and if something is wrong, recommend correcting it. in this option and carry out the normal date check that I already mentioned. how it’s done, how to remove the garbage and what event is used in this case is probably not worth explaining in this particular topic.

Something like this?

function dateIsCorrect(dateString) (
var parts = dateString.split(‘.’);
if (parts.length != 3) return false;
try (
var tmpDate = new Date(parts, parts, parts, 12);
return (dateString == tmpDate.getDate() + '.' + tmpDate.getMonth + '.' + tmpDate.getFullYear());
) catch (ex) ( return false; )
}

If the date is not valid, the Date object will convert it to an appropriate normal date, and when converted back to a string, it will not be the same as the original.

AB...[dossier]Yes, this is all clear, if we don’t talk about the economy and efficiency of the code, then entire algorithms can be made, just look at how many extra steps there are - versus one line of code with a regular expression)))

Ilya Stpeltsyn aka SelenIT[dossier] Also a good option - thanks, but it contains a lot of code compared to one line of code with a regular expression.

Thank you all for your participation.

Ilya Stpeltsyn aka SelenIT[dossier] with a functionally equivalent regular sequence (February, leap years, etc.;)?

agree.

Thirteensmay[dossier] Your regular routine is harmful because it creates an imaginary feeling of security, sooner or later you yourself or the one who will accompany you will persist. If the code does not solve the problem properly, then its effectiveness is highly questionable, as is the savings on matches at the expense of quality and safety. This is not a professional approach. I hope you don't take this as a personal insult 😉

agree.

AB...[dossier] Dear author, look at the problem from a different perspective and you yourself will understand that they are telling you a more correct way to solve the problem instead of where you are going. It reminds me of your actions like applying electrical tape to a crack.

agree.

Gentlemen, I agree with everyone. Thanks for the constructive criticism. The choice fell on a regular expression, because what it does for this particular project is quite sufficient. And there is no need for such a “rigid” check.

P.S: Taking into account all your comments in another project, I have already taken a different path. And I did as AB...[dossier] advised in his first post.

Whoever wrote this, thank you very much)))

Don't use the expression suggested above

/(\d|3)\.(0\d|1)\.(\d(4))/
Accepts date 11.00.2006

Use the following expression, which as a bonus already checks for a high year.

Enjoy it, gentlemen!

^(((0|\d|3)\.(0|1)\.((19|\d)\d(2)))|((0|\d|30)\.(0|1 )\.((19|\d)\d(2)))|((0|1\d|2)\.02\.((19|\d)\d(2)))|(29 \.02\.((1|\d)(0||)|((16||)00))))$

The Latin alphabet was invented in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. Quite soon, this writing spread throughout the world and became the basis of most Romance, Germanic and other language groups. Latin writing is the basis for English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian, Lithuanian and many other languages, including the artificial language Esperanto. The only difference is that in different languages the same letters of the basic, Latin language are called differently. And even if you don’t know this ancient language, you definitely won’t have any difficulties with how to write in Latin on the keyboard.

Words and phrases

The classical Latin alphabet consists of 26 letters, each of which is familiar to those who know at least a little English language:

Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn ​​Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz

By the way, the sign W arose relatively recently, in the 11th century, in the writing of Germanic languages ​​(English, Dutch, Icelandic, etc.), therefore the letter W is sometimes not included in the Latin alphabet. Anyway, to write a Latin word in the text, just switch language layout from Russian to English. You can do it like this:

• use a combination of “hot keys”;

To do this, you need to simultaneously press the Alt and Shift buttons (right or left). If you did everything correctly, the indicator in the lower or upper right corner of the screen should show a change from RU (RUS) to EN (ENG).

If this key combination does not work, try pressing Ctrl + Shift. By the way, you can change these parameters yourself ( Language bar— Options — Keyboard switching).

If you are the proud owner of an Apple laptop, try the Command + Space or Option + Command + Space combinations.

• click on the language layout indicator;

Left-click on this very RU (RUS) icon, select “English language” (ENG) in the menu that appears and put a tick in this line.

• use the Punto Switcher program.

Thanks to this program, the keyboard layout automatically switches while typing. If the combination of letters turns out to be atypical for the language in which the characters are entered, the program switches the input language, erases what is printed and enters the right word or text to required language. This way, the user is not distracted by switching languages ​​and types all the text in one layout without worrying about the quality of the writing.

By default, Punto Switcher offers a pair of English and Russian languages, but in one of latest versions for Mac OS Sierra (version 1.3.0) added Latin language. However, the choice of the “Russian-Latin” pair is more likely justified if the required text is replete with Latin words and phrases.

Numbers

Nowadays, Latin - or Roman - numerals are mostly used to display centuries, time on dials and ordinal numbers. Numbers in Latin are displayed in combinations of seven characters:

• I - 1;
• V-5;
• X- 10;
• L- 50;
• C - 100;
• D - 500;
• M - 1000.

For example, the number 4 is designated as IV, and the number 300 is designated as CCC. If you find it difficult to translate Arabic numerals to Roman, use a number converter - you can easily find it on the Internet. There are several ways to enter Roman numerals into text.

Method number 1. Latin letters

1. Switch to English (see above how to do this);
2. Press the CapsLock key so that all numbers are typed in capital letters;
3. Enter the required letters and numbers.

Method number 2. ASCII codes

1. Activate the Num Lock mode (a separate key in the number pad of the keyboard or the key combination Fn + F11, Fn + F8 or others for other keyboards);
2. While holding down the ALT button, type one or more of the combinations below on the secondary keyboard (right on the keyboard or letter keys with small numbers on the main keyboard).

Method No. 3. Word Features

Method number 4. Large numbers

Sometimes users need to write a number greater than 1000 in Roman numerals. In order not to complicate the perception of the number with a long row of characters, you can use the generally accepted icon in the form of an underscore. The number or numbers that have this underscore are automatically multiplied by 1000.

To display an overline above a letter, you can do the following:

Method No. 5. Lists

If you need to insert a list into the text using Roman numerals, then use the sequence “Home - Paragraph - Numbering” and select the required option in the list that opens.

The oldest Latin inscriptions known to science date back to the 7th century. BC e. (inscription on a silver vessel from Praeneste, etc.).

According to ancient historical tradition, the art of writing was brought to Latium in the 2nd half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Greeks from the Peloponnese who settled on the Palatine Hill in the center of the future Rome. No traces of this letter were found in Italy, but in Greece at that time a syllabic linear letter was used.

In the 18th century a hypothesis arose of the Etruscan origin of the Latin letter. In the 19th century it was suggested that the Latin letter originates from the city of Cuma (near Naples), from the 8th century. BC e. the largest Greek city in Italy. However, modern archaeological evidence suggests that constant contacts between Greece and Italy existed already in the 2nd millennium BC. e., and the Greek alphabetic writing, which presumably arose at the turn of the 9th-8th centuries. BC e., could get to Latium not only through Cumae (for example, next to Rome there was the city of Gabii, where Greek culture dominated and where, as ancient tradition says, the future founders of Rome Romulus and Remus were taught to read and write). The Greek alphabetic writing in Italy developed slowly, without drastic changes, and only gradually, in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e., the Latin alphabet itself was formed (see Fig. 1).

In the oldest Latin inscriptions, the writing direction is both right to left and left to right, and the inscription of the Forum is made with a vertical boustrophedon. From the 4th century BC e. The direction of writing from left to right was firmly established. There were no punctuation marks in ancient writing. There was no division into uppercase and lowercase letters. Words were separated from each other, as a rule, by word-separating signs located at the level of the middle of the letters.

In Latin writing, most Western Greek letters retained their original meaning and style. The Latin letter C is an archaic outline of the Greek scale (in this meaning it was preserved in the traditional abbreviation of the Roman personal names Gaius and Gnaeus - C, Cn); in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. the outline of the letter K gradually transformed into the outline C and thus coincided with the outline of the ancient scale; in Latin writing, the letter C began to convey the sound “k”, and from late antiquity - the sound “c” before “e”, “i”. The digamma F, which conveyed the sound “v” in archaic Greek writing, was used for the sound “f” in Latin writing. Zeta Z was officially abolished from the Latin script by the censor in 312 BC. e. Appius Claudius, since it fell out of use due to the change in the intervocalic “z” to “r”. The letter H (“this”), which conveyed aspiration in Western Greek writing, was preserved in Latin writing with the same meaning. The letter K (“kappa”), which had an open outline in the inscription on the Forum stele, gradually acquired the shape C, coinciding with the third letter of the alphabet, which conveyed the sound “g”. In the inscriptions of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. the shape C serves both as a designation for the sounds “k” and “g” (but the shape K never means “g”). To avoid mixing these sounds when writing, a vertical stroke was added at the bottom to the ancient scale C - this is how the Latin G was created; around 234 BC e. Spurius Carvilius officially introduced the letter G into the alphabet, replacing it with the previously abolished zeta. The shape C began to serve as a sign for "k", and the archaic shape K almost fell into disuse, being preserved mainly in the spelling of the word Kalendae and in the abbreviation of the personal name Kaeso - K. From coppa (Ϙ) comes the Latin letter Q. From Greek upsilon (Υ) the result was the Latin letter V. The letter X (“chi”), which served as a sign for “ks” in Western Greek writing, retained this meaning. The letters Θ ("theta"), Φ ("phi") and Ψ ("psi") were used in Latin writing as the numerals for 100, 1000 and 50.

From the 1st century BC e. The Romans began to use the letters Y and Z to write words of Greek origin.

The Roman Emperor Claudius (41-54) invented and introduced into the alphabet the letters Ⅎ (the sound “v”), ↄ (“ps” or “bs”), Ⱶ (a sound like the German ü); this reform, which sought to bring the spelling closer to the pronunciation, was not successful, and after the death of Claudius these letters were not used. For the classic antique Latin alphabet, see Fig. 2.

Over the course of many centuries, Latin writing developed spontaneously and smoothly, being widely used in Roman society, in which literacy was never the privilege of any social strata. By the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st centuries. BC e. a kind of calligraphic peak has formed epigraphic letters for inscriptions of especially important content (so-called. monumental, or square, or lapidary, letter; see fig. 3). Its opposite is italic, i.e. fluent, everyday writing, in which a person’s individual handwriting is maximally manifested. Sometimes identified as a special species actuarial letter (letter of documents). In the 3rd century. in North Africa there was an epigraphic uncial letter (i.e. “hooked”; see Fig. 4). Ancient epigraphic Latin writing was always majuscule (see Majuscule letter).

Rice. 3. Inscription from 113 on the base of Trajan's Column in Rome.

Rice. 4. Uncial inscription 3rd century. from Timgad (Algeria).

Latin writing continued to develop during the Middle Ages, featuring a wide variety of forms. The W style appeared in the 11th century. The letters J and U were introduced into the Latin script in the 16th century. In post-antique times, the division of letters into uppercase and lowercase arose, punctuation marks and diacritics appeared.

In national writing systems based on the Latin script, its adaptation to the corresponding phonetic systems was carried out mainly through the introduction of diacritics (in French, Polish, Lithuanian and other languages). The modern Latin alphabet has two typographical types: Latin (or serif) and Gothic (or Fraktur); the first species, close to the ancient one, is dominant (see Fig. 5).

• Fedorov E.V., Introduction to Latin epigraphy, M., 1982 (lit.);
• Calderini A., Epigrafia, Torino,(lit.);
• Calabi Limentani I., Epigrafia latina, 3 ed., Mil.,(lit.);
• Popoli et civiltà dell'Italia antica, v. 6 - Lingue e dialetti, Roma, 1978.

E. V. Fedorova.

Handwritten Latin writing in antiquity was at first distinguished by its great closeness to epigraphic writing. Varieties of capital writing have a consistent majuscule character: rustic(lit. - rough; 1-8 centuries) - from letters that are significantly free in shape, and square(4th century) - from calligraphic. The widespread use of parchment for writing led to the development from the 2nd century. unciala(until the 8th century), in which roundness of forms develops.

Among the fonts that appeared in the Middle Ages, the round variety of the insular script, that is, the script of Ireland and the Anglo-Saxon states, has a majuscule character. After gradual displacement from the 3rd century. majuscule minuscule (see Minuscule letter) capital letter is fixed as a set of forms used to this day mainly for titles. The first types of minuscule were clear in shape half-uncial(3rd-8th centuries) and careless new Roman italics (3rd-5th centuries). Based on the latter, semi-cursive early medieval fonts, the so-called regional ones, were developed, often used in a limited area. At the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. (at the beginning of the Carolingian Renaissance) appeared Carolingian minuscule, which is based on the semi-uncial tradition. Carolingian minuscule gradually replaced all other types of Latin writing in Western Europe. From the end of the 11th century. spread as a result of urban development, a broken version of the Carolingian minuscule (the so-called Gothic letter), which prevailed until the 15th century. The Renaissance, brought to life again ancient traditions, caused a return in a letter round shapes and appearance humanistic letters. The latter formed the basis for most printed and handwritten fonts of modern times.

• Lublinskaya A.D., Latin paleography, M., 1969;
• Dobiash-Rozhdestvenskaya O. A., History of writing in the Middle Ages, 3rd ed., M.-L., 1987;
• Steffens F., Lateinische Paläographie, 3 Aufl., B. - Lpz., 1929.

Let me remind you that the Latin language belongs to the Latin-Falian subgroup of Italic languages ​​(the languages ​​of the tribes that, from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, lived on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, except for the Etruscans, Ligurians, Celts and Greeks). The Italic languages, in turn, belong to the family of Indo-European languages. Initially, Latin was the language of a small tribe - the Latins, living in the center of the Apennine Peninsula. This information may be of interest when taking a closer look at the Latin alphabet.

Origins of the Latin alphabet

Influence of the Etruscan alphabet

The Etruscan culture was well known to the Latins. In the 9-8 centuries BC, the relatively small territory of Latium bordered on the north with the then significant territory of the Etruscan tribe (they are also Tusks or Tosks, now the Italian province of Tuscany). At a time when the culture of the Latins was just emerging, the culture of the Etruscans was already experiencing its heyday.

The Latins borrowed quite a lot from the Etruscans. The Etruscan writing had a right-to-left direction, so for convenience, the reverse (compared to the usual Latin) spelling of letters was used (naturally, this was the original spelling; we use the reverse version).

Influence of the Greek alphabet

The Greek alphabet also made a significant contribution to the formation of modern Latin. It is worth mentioning that the Etruscan alphabet was partially borrowed from Western Greek. But direct borrowing from Greek into Latin began later, when the Romans, in their characteristic style, began a thorough acquaintance with Greek culture. Greek names and the names contained sounds that were not characteristic of Roman phonetics; there were no letters in the Latin language to write them, so Greek letters were also transferred to the Latin alphabet. This is the origin of the letters "x", "y", "z".

Ancient Greek inscriptions were also made not only from left to right, but also from right to left and boustrophedon (the Greeks gave the name to this type of writing), therefore in the ancient Greek language there were both direct and reverse variants of writing letters at the same time.

Influence of Phoenician consonantal writing

The Phoenicians are considered the creators of the first phonetic writing. The Phoenician alphabet was a syllabary alphabet in which one symbol denoted the combination of one consonant sound with any vowel (It is often said that the Phoenicians wrote down only consonants, but this assumption is formally incorrect). The Phoenicians traveled a lot, settled in new and new places... and their writing traveled and took root with them. Gradually, spreading in different directions, the symbols of the Phoenician alphabet were transformed, on the one hand, into the letters of the Greek and then the Latin alphabet, and on the other, into the letters of Hebrew (and other northern Semitic dialects).

Comparative table of symbols of related languages ​​(Commentary see below in the text)

The conclusions drawn from the results of comparing all these languages ​​are different. The question of continuity has not been completely resolved, however, the similarity of independent ancient languages ​​suggests that there may have been one progenitor language. Many researchers tend to look for it in Canaan, a semi-mythical state that the Phoenicians considered their homeland.

History of the Latin alphabet

The first Latin inscriptions available to modern researchers date back to the 7th century BC. Since that time, it has been customary to talk about archaic Latin. The archaic alphabet consists of 21 letters. The Greek letters theta, phi and psi were used to write the numbers 100, 1000, 50.

Having become a censor in 312 BC, Appius Claudius Caecus introduced differences in the writing of the letters “r” and “s” and abolished the letter “z”, and the sound denoted by this letter was replaced by [p]. Closely related to this event is one of the basic laws of phonetics of the Latin language - the law of rhotacism.

After the abolition of the letter "z", the Latin alphabet of the classical period contains 20 letters.

In the 1st century BC, the letter "z" was borrowed again, and with it the letter "y". In addition, the letter “g” was finally recognized (before this, both sounds: voiced - [g] and voiceless - [k] were designated by one letter - “c”). Of course, there were some disputes, but it is generally accepted that Spurius Carvilius Ruga was the first to use it in 235 BC, however, at that time it was not included in the alphabet.

The alphabet began to consist of 23 letters.

One more thing important event in the history of the Latin alphabet falls on the 1st century AD. Using the practice of replacing the most common combinations of letters with one symbol, which was widespread in Greece, the future emperor Claudius (since 41 AD, being a censor) introduced three new letters, later called “Claudian”: reverse digamma, antisigma and half ha.

The reverse digamma was to be used to indicate the sound [in:].

Antisigma - to denote combinations of bs and ps, similar to the Greek letter psi.

Half ha - to indicate the sound between [i] and [u].

They never made it into the alphabet.

Nevertheless:

1. The codes for these characters are included in Unicode: u+2132, u+214e - reverse digamma, u+2183, u+2184 - antisigma, u+2c75, u+2c76 - half ha.
2. The letters “y” and “v”, which were completely defined in the alphabet somewhat later, became analogues of two of the three Claudian letters, which indicates the validity of the proposal of the future emperor.

Much later, the issue with pairs of letters “i” - “j”, “v” - “u” was resolved. Both pairs were used in writing before, and denoted two pairs of sounds ([i] - [th], [v] - [y]), but it was not clearly defined which spelling denotes which sound. The separation of the first couple supposedly occurred in the 16th century AD, and the second in the 18th century (although some researchers suggest that this happened simultaneously for both couples).

The modern version of the Latin alphabet, consisting of 25 letters, was formalized during the Renaissance (hence the assumption of the separation of "v" and "u" in the 16th century, since they are both contained in this variant). This event is closely connected with the name of Petrus Ramus.

The digraph "vv", especially common in Northern Europe, became the letter "w". The sound denoted by this letter came from the Germanic languages ​​after the fall of the Roman Empire, so many experts do not include the letter “w” in the Latin alphabet or include it conditionally.

The more secure the password for State Services, the better your profile will be protected from hacking. Since your personal data is stored on the portal, attackers have wide scope for manipulation when they get into your personal account.

We will give examples of passwords at the beginning of the article, but it is better to read it completely to have a complete understanding of its composition.

Examples:

• *Ivan0v_Ivan@1980*
• SleSar_Petrenk0!
• Pavel@Durin85
• LaGutenKo_2018!
• 1VlaDimir*i*Dim0n

If you see an error when entering a password (even one generated by the site itself), then read where the solution to this problem is.

Password security requirements

Basic requirements (from the State Services portal)

Since the main and simplest method of obtaining a password is to “brute force” it with special programs, the requirements that the State Services portal makes for the password are justified.

In order for the portal system to approve your password, it must meet certain requirements:

• 8 or more characters. The password must contain minimum 8 characters.
• Uppercase latin letters (D,E,F,G,J,K...). Capital letters only
• Lowercase Latin letters (d,e,f,g,j,k...). Small letters only English keyboard layout.
• Numbers. The password must Necessarily numbers are present.
• Punctuation marks (!?,.+-*/<_>etc.). The password must Necessarily punctuation marks must be present.

All these points must be observed simultaneously in your password.

Additional Requirements

In addition to the basic requirements, remember that:

• You cannot use Russian characters, that is, when composing a password, the keyboard layout must be switched to English.
• Repeated characters cannot be used (A nn a, 1 99 8, AASSFF).
• You can use your first name, last name, profession, or other information that is familiar to you, but do not be too obvious when creating your password. If an attacker has minimal information about you, he can use this knowledge to simplify the selection of a symbol combination.
• Do not store your password in a visible place. The password must not fall into the wrong hands.
• Do not write down the password in such a way that you can guess what it is for. For example, next to the password there should not be such notes: “Password”, “Password for State Services”, “Government Services”, “From the State Services website”, “Login to the site”, etc.

Generated password or your own?

The generated password, which can be immediately obtained on the website, is the most reliable from simple methods hacking personal account. It does not contain logic, it uses many combinations of rare symbols, so it is difficult to select. But its main disadvantage is the inability to reproduce it from memory. It is unlikely that you will remember such combinations of symbols “X%5x|rFd”, “0EtAyUL7” “~Eb*2BCK”, etc.

If you plan to regularly use the State Services portal, then you need a different password - reliable, but memorable.

Examples of passwords for State services

In accordance with the requirements of the portal, we will create the following passwords:

• $V1aD_PetroV$
• NaVaLny_vs_PutLin_(0:2)
• *Ivan0v_Ivan@1980*
• Pavel@Durin85
• LaGutenKo_2018!
• SleSar_Petrenk0!
• 1VlaDimir*i*Dim0n

These passwords are provided as an example only. We recommend creating the “logic” of the symbolic combination yourself.