Before we talk about who discovered India, we should understand why Europeans began to ask questions about finding a new route to this distant country. The main reason was that the Mongols, one after another, conquered almost all the important points in the world. Trade relations were not a priority for the conquerors, and therefore by the end of the 13th century. Trade with China and India has become much more difficult for Europe. It was run by Arab merchants who profited from it as best they could.
First attempts to find another route to India
Immediately after Saint-Jean d'Acre, the last bastion of Europe in the East, fell, an expedition began to be equipped in Genoa to find a sea route to India. The Vivaldi brothers set off on two galleys equipped with food supplies, fresh water and everything necessary. According to the plan, they first had to arrive in Ceuta (Morocco), and from there head to the ocean in order to find Indian countries and purchase the desired valuable goods there. There is no reliable data confirming whether the sailors managed to reach the shores of India. However, already at the beginning of the 14th century. Quite accurate outlines of Africa begin to appear on the maps, which suggests that they were able to at least bypass the hot continent from the south.
The famous expedition of Vasco da Gama
Some researchers still consider Vivaldi to be the one who discovered India. However, official data disagrees with this statement, and Vasco da Gama is considered the sole discoverer of the sea route to the East.
In the century following Vivaldi's expedition, Spain and Portugal sent ships one after another, but neither explorer was successful. In the summer of 1497, by order of Manuel I, who had just ascended the Portuguese throne, another flotilla was prepared to find a route to India. The monarch entrusted the command of the four ships to Commander Vasco da Gama, a literate and smart person, experienced in palace intrigue, who, in the opinion of Manuel I, could not cope better with the task entrusted to him. And he was not mistaken, because it was Vasco da Gama who is now known to us as the one who discovered India.
Preparations for the expedition from the beginning to the very departure were led by Bartolomeo Dias - a man who in 1488, although he did not open the sea route to India, reached the extreme point of Africa, which received from him light hand name Cape of Storms (later renamed Cape of Good Hope).
The experience gained by Dias turned out to be very useful. In particular, it was he who helped design new ships for the journey, since, in his opinion, ordinary caravels were absolutely not suitable for such a serious voyage.
The final preparations were completed, and in 1497 Vasco da Gama's expedition set off on a long journey. 170 of Portugal's best sailors were gathered on board four ships. Many people were familiar with the beginning of the journey from swimming with Dias. All ships were equipped with the best navigation instruments at that time, and the crew had the most accurate maps. At the initial stages, Dias accompanied the flotilla, and then went ashore.
The expedition of Vasco da Gama was forced to make a huge detour in order to bypass the strip of calm on Christmas Day 1497, the expedition met already while sailing along the eastern coast of Africa. At that time, out of 4 ships, only three remained: one sank nearby. The calm movement to the north was greatly hampered by the southwest current, and therefore navigation was not easy.
However, on March 2, 1498, the expedition successfully reached Mozambique. Here, those who subsequently discovered India had a rather unpleasant incident with the local ruler. Despite the fact that the Portuguese spared no expense in equipping the expedition, they seriously miscalculated with the gifts. As a result, instead of improving relations with the Mozambican Sultan, the Europeans worsened them even more and were forced to leave these places as soon as possible.
Da Gama’s expedition found the next refuge in Mombassa, but even there the people did not receive a very warm welcome. And only in the third port, called Malindi, was the team able to rest and gain strength. The local ruler treated the Portuguese in the best possible way and even brought da Gama together with Ahmed ibn Majida - his the best navigator. Ibn Majid followed with the expedition to final destination appointments.
The solemn event - the discovery of India - took place on May 20, 1498. It was then that the flotilla arrived at the port of Calicut. However, relations between the Portuguese and the local prince and Muslim merchants were also not in the best way. Another conflict forced Da Gama to leave the port without even waiting for a fair wind.
However, the initial goal was achieved, and Vasco da Gama remained in the history of mankind as the one who opened the route to India by sea.
The discovery of India is one of the greatest geographical discoveries in the history of mankind. It would not have existed if the Europeans did not urgently need direct contacts with the country from where spices were brought to the continent. The debate about who discovered India has continued for many centuries. The official version is that Vasco da Gama found his way to India during his expedition.
Background of the expedition
India at the end of the 13th century. was a mysterious and very distant country for Europeans. Information about its existence reached the inhabitants of Europe through traders and sailors. The search for a direct route to India became relevant at the end of the 13th century, when the Arab Caliphate collapsed and the Mongols began to quickly conquer cities and trade centers located on the Great Silk Road.
If for the Arabs trade was one of the first places in foreign policy, then the rulers of the Golden Horde did not consider it necessary to develop it. When the Mongols completely conquered China and India, then spices stopped flowing to the royal courts. The Arabs, who monopolized trade on the Great Silk Road, also suffered huge financial losses.
Another factor that had a huge influence on the search for a route to India from Europe was the interest of the Portuguese king. The support of the monarchy gave the sailors financial, moral support, and political protection. Portugal simply needed a new route to India, since the kingdom was located far from trade routes. Because of this, the country did not participate in world trade and did not receive any dividends from it. Thus, the Portuguese monarchs in the 15th century, patronizing the expedition of Vasco da Gama, wanted to replenish the state treasury and strengthen their international position.
Under the flag of Lisbon
The peculiarities of the geographical location of Portugal made it possible to study the western coast of Africa. This was used by the Prince of Portugal, Henrique Henry the Navigator, who sought to find a sea route to India. Interestingly, Enrique himself never sailed on a ship, as he suffered from seasickness. Whether this is true or a myth is unknown, but it was Enrique the Navigator who inspired other sailors and traders to travel to Africa and beyond its western outskirts.
Gradually, the Portuguese reached Guinea and other southern lands, bringing gold, slaves, spices, valuable goods and fabrics to their homeland. At the same time, astronomical and mathematical knowledge and shipping were actively developing.
When Enrique died, expeditions to find a route by sea to the land of spices ceased for some time. The navigators' enthusiasm waned when none of the expeditions reached the equator.
The situation changed radically when in the 1480s. An officer from Portugal found his way to India by land. He confirmed that this country can also be reached by sea. His words before the monarchs rang true, since in B. Dias managed to go around the Atlantic Ocean, enter the Indian Ocean, and discover the Cape of Good Hope. If Dias's sailors had not refused to sail further than the cape, the navigator would have become the first person to reach India. But history decreed differently. B. Dias' ships returned to Lisbon, and the glory of the discoverer continued to await Vasco da Gamma.
Vivaldi Brothers
The first attempt to find an alternative route to India was made by the Genoese when the last stronghold of Europe in Asia, the city of Saint-Jean d'Acre, fell. The expedition from Genoa was led by the Vivaldi brothers, who equipped two ships with supplies, water and equipment for the journey to a distant country. Their route was supposed to run through the port of Ceuta, which is located in Morocco, and from there across the ocean. Having crossed the ocean, the Vivaldi brothers were going to find India, buy goods there - spices, silks, herbs - and return back to Genoa.
Historians do not find accurate information about whether or not this expedition succeeded in completing its assigned tasks in written sources. However, researchers believe that part of Vivaldi’s path was still covered, since an accurate description of Africa began to appear on maps drawn up in the early 14th century. Most likely, sailors from Genoa circumnavigated the African continent from the southern side.
Preparing for swimming
Vasco da Gama had excellent knowledge of navigation, experience as a navigator, and knew how to deal with disobedient people, including sailors. Da Gama was also a skilled diplomat, so he always got what he wanted from the monarchs of other kingdoms of Europe and from the rulers of the barbarian world.
Vasco da Gama, his brother Paulo and Bartolomeu Dias were preparing for the voyage. Under the leadership of the latter, four ships were built, new maps were compiled and navigation instruments were purchased. Cannons and special ovens were installed on ships to bake bread. To protect against attacks by pirates, sailors were armed with bladed weapons, crossbows and halberds.
As provisions, crackers, fish, cheese, water, wine, vinegar, almonds, rice, lentils, and flour were loaded onto each ship.
The first expedition and the discovery of India
The ships sailed from Lisbon under the leadership of da Gamma on July 8, 1497. The expedition lasted three years. On the ships there were sailors, scientists, priests, translators, and criminals. Total quantity travelers varied, according to historians, from 100 to 170 people.
Having entered the Indian Ocean, the ships made a stop in Mozambique. The Sultan did not like the gifts and behavior of the Europeans, because of this they were forced to quickly sail from Mozambique. Stopping in Mombasa, the Portuguese captured some booty - a ship, people, goods.
Next, the route went to Malindi (in our time, southeastern Kenya), where da Gama hired a professional Arab pilot, who showed the Portuguese the way to India. Under the control of a pilot, the flotilla crossed the Indian Ocean from the west and on May 20, 1498 entered the port of Calicut. Neither the gifts nor Vasco da Gama made the right impression on the local ruler. For him and the merchants who were at the court of the sovereign from Calicut, they were pirates, not seafarers. Goods sold poorly in the Indian port, and quarrels constantly arose due to high duties on the part of the Indian authorities.
Seeing that the situation was not in favor of the Portuguese, da Gama gave the order to sail back to Portugal. The path home was not easy. The ships of the expedition were robbed by pirates, crew members were sick, there was not enough provisions and fresh water. Da Gama's sailors themselves plundered, seized merchant ships and coastal territories.
After circumnavigating the Green Islands, Vasco da Gama decided to send one ship to Manuel I. The ship reached the port of Lisbon in July 1499. The crew members brought the news that the route to India by water had been paved. The expedition leader himself and another ship returned to Portugal a few months later. The main results of the first voyage to the shores of India include:
- Loss of personnel.
- Loss of two ships out of four.
- New lands were conquered, to which the power of the King of Portugal extended.
- The capture of a large number of goods, the money from the sale of which made it possible to fully recoup the costs of equipping the expedition (60 times!).
Colonization of India
A new voyage of the Portuguese to India began in 1502 and lasted a year. The king wanted not just new geographical discoveries, but also the establishment of trade relations with the rulers of other states. The expedition was assigned to be led by Pedro Alvares Cabral, who failed the mission to establish profitable trade relations. Fragile contacts with traders from Calicut were lost.
Because of this, the king decided that power over India could only be achieved by force of arms. And again Manuel the First turned to Vasco da Gama, who was known for his uncompromisingness. Da Gama's second expedition was more successful than the first:
- Fortresses and trading factors were established along the entire southern coast of the African continent.
- Local emirs were subject to tribute.
- Portuguese authority over the port of Calicut was established.
- Captured the city of Cochin.
In 1503, the flotilla with huge gifts returned to Portugal. Da Gama received privileges, honors, and a place at the court of the monarchs. His advice was greatly appreciated by Manuel I when developing plans for the further development of India.
After the discovery of “Western India” by the Spanish expedition of Christopher Columbus, the Portuguese government had to hurry to secure the rights to East India, especially since the Portuguese had some success in this direction. Even under Henry the Navigator (Portuguese prince 1394-1460), the Portuguese well studied the northern coast of Africa and part of the western coast of this continent. Henry the Navigator only boarded a ship once, but he strongly supported navigation in Portugal. His merit also lies in the fact that he forced sea travelers to abandon the opinion that existed in ancient times that it was impossible to sail to the south - the southern sea was boiling. After him, little Portugal set off in search (terra incognito) of the unknown Southern Land.
Baker divided all the Portuguese expeditions associated with the opening of the sea route to India into five chronological stages:
1st stage 1415-1434. The Portuguese managed to round Cape Boldar.
Stage 2, 1434-1462, was marked by a successful advance deep into Africa to the Gulf of Guinea.
3rd stage 1470-1475 Portuguese travelers reached the equator.
4th stage 1482-1488 busy with the expeditions of two explorers: Diego Cahn and Bartolomeu Diaz. Together they completed the exploration of the western coast of Africa, and Diaz circumnavigated the southern part of this continent - the Cape of Good Hope, which he called the Cape of Torment.
5th stage 1497-1500 After the discovery of America by the Spaniards, the Portuguese, led by Vasco da Gama, were entrusted with completing the opening of the sea route to India. His main task was to pass those 800 miles of unexplored coast that separated the line reached by Diaz from the area well known to Arab sailors. This alone ensured Vasco da Gama a place of honor among the great explorers; but the completion of this task constitutes only a small part of his achievements, and took him one month, the rest of the time - 20 months - he was studying and describing the newly discovered coast of the African continent.
In 1497, the expedition of Vasco da Gama was equipped. He had at his disposal three ships and one auxiliary ship with provisions. The crew of all ships was 150 - 170 people. In the summer of 1497, the expedition left Lisbon and 4.5 months later reached the Cape of Good Hope. At the end of January 1498, Vasco da Gama discovered the mouth of the huge Zambezi River and brought his ships there. He declared this area the possessions of the Portuguese king and erected a “coat of arms” on the banks of the Zambezi. The sailors suffering from scurvy needed treatment, and the expedition spent a whole month here. This part of Africa was densely populated, the local blacks understood some Arabic words and wore cotton fabrics. It was good sign: If not India, then Arabia was relatively close, and Vasco da Gama called the Zambezi “the river of Good Omens.” To the north of the Zambezi lay the city of Mozambique, where Arab merchants lived. The Arabs were very surprised to see Europeans here, but then, when they learned that the expedition was going to India, they gave Vasco da Gama an experienced pilot - the Arab Ahmed ibn Majid, who was supposed to interfere with the expedition by running the Portuguese ships aground. Thanks to a happy accident, the Portuguese managed to avoid terrible danger, and on May 20, 1498, the squadron dropped anchor in front of Calicut. Hundreds of people surrounded unprecedented European ships. The Portuguese heard greetings in all sorts of languages, because... Calicut was one of the most important ports in the world at that time. This triumphant meeting was followed by sobering up. The Arab merchants were the first to come to their senses. Vasco da Gama loaded his ships with spices, the Arabs realized that they were losing the threads of trade, and began to turn local authorities and populations against foreigners. After several incidents, Vasco da Gama “greeted the Indians with cannonballs” and sailed for his homeland. The day May 20, 1498, when Vasco da Gama dropped anchor off Calicut, turned out to be a fateful day in the history of India. From that time on, as Marx wrote, “the first steps towards the conquest and plunder of the East Indies began.” Vasco da Gama's expedition brought huge profits to the Portuguese crown. The happy sailor brought home gems, silks, silver and ivory jewelry and a large cargo of spices. An entire fleet of 13 ships, with a crew of 1,500 people, was immediately organized in Lisbon. Cabral was appointed head of this large expedition, who was familiar (from maps) with the route, but in the tropical part of the Atlantic Ocean his ships found themselves in a zone of calm and were carried far to the west by the equatorial current. A gust of wind drove the Portuguese ships to unknown land, to the eastern part South America, later named Brazil. Cabral did not find anything interesting on the shores of Novaya Zemlya. He did not know and could not know that it forms part of Western India (America), open. Still, Cabral sent one ship to Portugal with a message about the discovery of a new land, and the Portuguese government soon sent an expedition for further discoveries in the western part of the Atlantic Ocean (Amerigo Vespucci probably took part in this expedition).
Back in 1494, the Treaty of Tordesillas was concluded between Spain and Portugal. He established a conditional demarcation line between the possessions of Spain and Portugal. It took place in the Atlantic Ocean, west of the Cape Verde Islands along the 50th meridian. All lands “west” of 46 degrees 30 minutes west longitude belonged to Spain, and to the east belonged to Portugal. The treaty was approved by Pope Alexander VI Borgia. This agreement in advance deprived the French, British, and Germans of the right to open any lands in the future. He was deprived of internal conviction and already the French king Francis I declared that if the pope was not authorized by our ancestor Adam to dispose of the globe, then he, Francis I, the same direct descendant of Adam, was not obliged to comply with this agreement. This joke reflected the real state of affairs - the authority of the popes was not high. This is especially true for Alexander VI Borgia, who became “famous” for violations not only Christian morality, but also all articles of criminal law. It was he who once invited eleven creditors to dinner, poisoned them all and thus ended his debt obligations. This treaty “did not prohibit” the Portuguese from seeking a route to the Spice Islands. Soon, sailors settled in Southeast Asia, displacing Muslim merchants. In 1511, they captured Malacca by cunning, where spices were delivered from the Moluccas. A year later, the subjects of King Manuel the Happy found their way to the Spice Islands. A stream of pepper and cloves poured into Lisbon. Portugal became the greatest and richest maritime power. A few years later, her ships reached China and Japan.
Among the countries that began to look for sea routes to Africa and India were Portugal and Spain. Italian port cities played a dominant role with the countries of Northwestern Europe. Trade ships crossed the Mediterranean Sea and moved due north through the Strait of Gibraltar, skirting the Pyrrhenian Peninsula. The Mediterranean Sea was monopolized by the Italians, and Portuguese ships had no access to the cities of northern Africa.
Beginning in the 14th century, Portuguese and Spanish port cities became especially important. There was a rapid development of trade, new seaports were required to expand connections. Ships began to enter the cities to transship cargo and to replenish supplies of food and water. But Portugal could only develop new sea routes towards the Atlantic Ocean, since all routes to the east were under the control of Italy. The Iberian Peninsula occupied an advantageous position geographical location and was convenient for ships on new expeditions.
In 1415, the Portuguese conquered the Moroccan port of Ceuti, which was located at the southern tip of the Strait of Gibraltar. This port became the “starting point” for the construction of new sea routes along the western coast of Africa.
At the Cape of Good Hope
The expedition of the Portuguese admiral Bartalomeo Dias in 1488 reached the southernmost point of Africa - the Cape of Good Hope. Having rounded the cape, the admiral hoped to sail along the eastern coast of Africa, but a severe storm battered the admiral's ship, and the sailors on the ship itself rebelled. The admiral was forced to turn towards home. Arriving in Lisbon, he managed to convince that there was a road to India.
By the summer of 1497, a flotilla of four ships was equipped, which, under the leadership of Vasco da Gama, set out to explore the sea route to India. Rounding the Cape of Good Hope, the flotilla lost one ship.
The expedition continued its journey along the east coast of Africa and, entering the port of Malindi, received an experienced pilot from the local ruler, who led the ships to the Indian shores. On May 20, 1498, ships led by Vasca da Gama entered the Indian port of Calicut.
The escape that changed the world
Relations between the Portuguese and the local population did not work out so well that Vasco da Gama was forced to quickly take the ships out to the open ocean. The road home was full of difficulties and hardships. Only in September 1498 Vasco da Gama returned to Lisbon with the remnants of the flotilla, but the sea route to India, opened by the Portuguese Vasco da Gama, changed a lot in the world. Within a year, 13 ships were plowing the ocean towards India.
For a month the Portuguese stood at the mouth of the Kvakva, repairing ships. On February 24, the flotilla left the estuary, reached the port and then went north. A week later, the flotilla approached the port city of Mombasa. Coming from Mombasa, Gama detained an Arab dhow at sea, plundered it and captured 19 people. On 14 April he anchored in Malindi Harbour. The local sheikh greeted Gama friendly, since he himself was at enmity with Mombasa. He entered into an alliance with the Portuguese against a common enemy and gave them a reliable old pilot, Ibn Majid, who was supposed to lead them to South-West India. The Portuguese left Malindi with him on April 24. Ibn Majid headed northeast and, taking advantage of the favorable monsoon, brought the ships to India, the coast of which appeared on May 17. Seeing Indian land, Ibn Majid moved away from the dangerous shore and turned south. Three days later, a high cape appeared, probably Mount Delhi. Then the pilot approached the admiral with the words: “This is the country you were striving for.” By the evening of May 20, 1498, the Portuguese ships, having advanced about 100 km to the south, stopped at a roadstead against the city of Calicut (now Kozhikode).
Gama's expedition was not unprofitable for the crown, despite the loss of two ships: in Calicut it was possible to purchase spices and jewelry in exchange for government goods and personal belongings of sailors; Gama's pirate operations in the Arabian Sea brought considerable income. But, of course, this was not what caused rejoicing in Lisbon among the ruling circles. The expedition found out what enormous benefits direct sea trade could bring for them with the proper economic, political and military organization of the matter. The opening of a sea route to India for Europeans was one of greatest events in the history of world trade. From that moment until the digging of the Suez Canal (1869), the main commerce of Europe with countries and with went not through, but through - past the Cape of Good Hope. Portugal, which held in its hands “the key to eastern navigation,” became in the 16th century. the strongest naval power, seized the monopoly of trade with and held it for 90 years - until the defeat Invincible Armada (1588).
