Means for protecting the hydrosphere. The main directions of protecting the hydrosphere from anthropogenic impact. Abstract-The problem of water pollution

Sources of wastewater pollution are industrial, domestic and surface runoff.

Industrial wastewater is generated as a result of the use of water in technological processes.

Domestic wastewater found in sinks, sanitary facilities, showers, etc., contains large impurities (food debris, sand, feces, etc.); impurities of organic and mineral origin in undissolved, colloidal and dissolved states; various, including pathogenic, bacteria. The concentration of these impurities in household wastewater depends on the degree of dilution with tap water.

Surface wastewater is formed as a result of rain, snow and irrigation water washing away contaminants present on the soil surface, on the roofs and walls of buildings, etc. The main impurities of surface wastewater are mechanical particles (earth, sand, stone, wood and metal shavings, dust, soot and petroleum products, oils, gasoline, kerosene used in vehicle engines).

Water supply systems for industrial enterprises, depending on water and technological processes, can be direct-flow, repeated (sequential) and recycled water supply. When choosing a design for treatment stations and technological equipment, it is necessary to know the flow rate of wastewater and the concentration of impurities contained in it, as well as the permissible composition of wastewater discharged into water bodies. The permissible composition of wastewater is calculated taking into account the “Rules for the protection of surface waters”. These rules are for

prevention of excessive wastewater pollution of water bodies. They set standards for maximum permissible concentrations of substances, the composition and properties of water in a reservoir.

Depending on the technological purpose, water in water supply systems can be subjected to various treatments: mechanical, physico-chemical and biological.

Mechanical cleaning Wastewater is removed from suspended particles by filtering, settling, processing in the field of centrifugal forces and filtering.

Straining is carried out in grids and fiber catchers. In vertical or inclined gratings, the width of the gaps is usually 15-20 mm. To separate fibrous substances from wastewater from pulp and paper and textile enterprises, various fiber traps are used, for example, using perforated disks or in the form of moving meshes with a layer of fibrous mass applied to them.

Settlement is based on the free settling (floating) of impurities with a density greater (less than) the density of water. The settling process is carried out in sand traps, settling tanks and grease traps. Sand traps are used to purify wastewater from metal and sand particles larger than 0.25 mm; settling tanks - for purifying wastewater from mechanical particles larger than 0.1 mm, as well as from particles of petroleum products. Wastewater treatment in the field of centrifugal forces is carried out in hydrocyclones and centrifuges.

Filtration is used to purify wastewater from finely dispersed impurities with low concentrations. It is used as initial stage cleaning, and after some methods of physical-chemical or biological treatment. Physico-chemical methods purification is used, as a rule, to remove dissolved impurities. The main ones are flotation, extraction, neutralization, sorption, ion exchange and electrochemical purification, hyperfiltration, evaporation, evaporation, evaporation and crystallization.

Flotation is intended to intensify the process of floating of oil products when their particles are enveloped by gas bubbles supplied to the wastewater.

Wastewater extraction is based on the redistribution of wastewater impurities in a mixture of two mutually insoluble liquids (wastewater and extractant).

8.1. Environmental protection products (eco-bioprotective equipment)... 159

Neutralization of wastewater is intended to separate acids, alkalis, and metal salts based on acids and alkalis from them. Neutralization of acids and their salts is carried out with alkalis or salts of strong alkalis: caustic soda, caustic potassium, lime, limestone, dolomite, marble, chalk, magnesite, soda, alkali waste. The cheapest and most accessible reagent for neutralizing acidic wastewater is calcium hydroxide (slaked lime). For neutralization of wastewater containing alkalis And their salts, you can use sulfuric, hydrochloric, nitric, phosphoric and other acids.

Sorption is used to purify wastewater from soluble impurities; any finely dispersed materials (ash, peat, sawdust, slag, clay) are used as sorbents; the most effective sorbent is activated carbon.

Ion exchange purification is used for desalting and purifying wastewater from metal ions and other impurities. Purification is carried out with ion exchange resins - synthetic ion exchange resins made in the form of granules 0.2-2 mm in size. Ion exchangers are made from water-insoluble polymer substances that have a mobile ion (cation or anion) on their surface, which, under certain conditions, enters into an exchange reaction with ions of the same sign contained in wastewater.

Electrochemical cleaning is carried out by the oxidation of substances by transferring electrons directly to the anode surface or through a carrier substance, as well as as a result of interaction with strong oxidizing agents formed during the electrolysis process.

Hyperfiltration is realized by separating solutions by filtering them through membranes, pores of about 1 nm in size allow water molecules to pass through, retaining hydrated salt ions or molecules of undissociated compounds.

Evaporation is carried out by treating wastewater with steam containing volatile organic substances, which pass into the vapor phase and, together with the steam, are removed from the wastewater.

Evaporation, evaporation and crystallization are used to treat small volumes of wastewater with high volatile content.

160 Ch. 8. Ecobioprotective equipment and personal protective equipment

Biological treatment used to isolate finely dispersed and dissolved organic substances. It is based on the ability of microorganisms to use wastewater contained in it for nutrition. organic matter(acids, alcohols, proteins, carbohydrates, etc.). The process consists of two stages that occur simultaneously, but at different speeds: adsorption of finely dispersed and dissolved impurities of organic substances from wastewater and destruction of adsorbed substances inside the cell of microorganisms during biochemical processes occurring in them (oxidation or reduction). Biochemical purification is carried out under natural and artificial conditions.

Under natural conditions, wastewater is purified in filtration fields, irrigation fields and biological ponds.

Biological filters are widely used for the purification of both domestic and industrial wastewater. Slag, crushed stone, expanded clay, plastic, and gravel are used as filter material for loading biofilters. There are biofilters with natural air supply - for wastewater treatment with a daily flow rate of no more than 1000 cubic meters. m and biofilters with forced air supply - for the purification of industrial wastewater at high costs and heavily

concentrated.

To implement these methods, treatment facilities are used, through which all wastewater from industrial enterprises and city sewers must be passed.

The basis for issuing permits for the discharge of industrial wastewater into the sewerage system of a populated area for operating enterprises is a water management passport, which represents one of the sections of the enterprise’s environmental passport.

The water management passport is developed by the enterprise in the prescribed form and submitted for approval to the water supply and sewerage department, where they specify:

Places of releases into sewerage systems
waters of populated areas;

Discharge standards and composition of discharged wastewater before and
after treatment facilities at outlets for medium and
maximum amount of pollutants.

A permit for the discharge of industrial wastewater may be canceled if the sewerage conditions of populated areas change or the industrial enterprise fails to comply with conditions, including water flow and the amount of pollution. Calculation of permissible concentrations of pollutants in wastewater takes into account their degree of purification at the aeration station.

8.2. Individual protection means

The range of personal protective equipment (PPE) includes an extensive list of products used in production environments (everyday use PPE), as well as those used in emergency situations (short-term use PPE). Depending on the purpose, PPE includes: special clothing and footwear, insulating suits, respiratory, eye, hand, head, face, hearing protection, safety devices and dermatological protective agents.

Special clothing serves to protect the body of workers from the adverse effects of mechanical and chemical factors in the working environment. It must reliably protect a person from harmful influences, not disrupt the body’s normal thermoregulation, provide freedom of movement, ease of wearing and be well cleaned of contaminants without changing its properties.

Special shoes must protect workers’ feet from exposure to dangerous and harmful production factors. Safety footwear is made from leather and leatherette substitutes, thick cotton fabrics coated with polyvinyl chloride, and rubber. In chemical industries, where acids, alkalis and other aggressive environments are used, rubber shoes are used. Plastic boots made from a mixture of polyvinyl chloride resins and synthetic rubbers are also widely used.

To protect the foot from damage associated with castings and forgings falling on the feet, the shoes are equipped with a steel toe that can withstand impacts of up to 20 kg. Special vibration-proof shoes are also used.

Eye and face protection- these are open and closed types of glasses, visor glasses, hand-held and head-mounted

162

Shields, helmets that protect the eyes and respiratory organs. When machining materials, closed glasses with safety glasses are used; when casting metals and alloys, aggressive liquids- closed-type glasses, masks with a screen or a light filter. Reflected radiation requires the use of closed glasses or masks with a protective screen and light filters. To protect the eyes from radiant energy, glasses with light filters are used. Special glasses with metallized lenses are recommended to protect the eyes from electromagnetic radiation in the ranges of millimeter, centimeter, decimeter and meter

Special shields and masks protect against metal damage and radiation. To protect electric welders, a face shield, a head shield or a protective mask with a transparent screen are produced.

Protective dermatological products serve to prevent skin diseases when exposed to certain harmful production factors. They are available in the form of ointments or pastes, which are designed to protect:

1) from petroleum products, solvents of various hydrocarbons,
fats, oils, varnishes, paints and other organic substances;

2) from water, aqueous solutions of acids, alkalis, salts, cooling
giving water-oil emulsions.

Hearing protection used in noisy industries, when servicing power plants, etc. These include earplugs and headphones. Earplugs are inserted into the ears when used. Disposable earplugs should only be used once; reusable earplugs and headphones require careful care, keeping them clean and promptly identifying defects. Correct and constant use of hearing protection reduces the noise load for earplugs by 10-20, for headphones by 20-30 dB.

Respiratory and skin protection are designed to protect against inhalation and entry into the human body of harmful substances (dust, steam, gas) during various technological processes or rescue operations in the event of chemical contamination of the atmosphere and area with highly toxic substances. When selecting personal respiratory protection equipment, do not

8.2.Personal protective equipment

You need to know: the substances you have to work with; concentration of pollutants; the time during which you will need to work; the state of these substances (gas, vapor or aerosol); the likelihood of danger of oxygen starvation; physical exercise per person during work. Based on the principle of protective action, personal protective equipment for the respiratory system and skin are divided into filtering and insulating. In filtering gas masks, the air supplied for breathing is cleaned of harmful substances. In insulating ones, breathing is carried out due to the oxygen reserves located in the gas mask itself; they are used in cases where it is impossible to use filtering gas masks, for example, when there is a lack of oxygen in the air, and also when the concentration of harmful substances is very high or unknown. In filter products, skin protection is ensured by the neutralization of vapors of chemically hazardous substances by special impregnation applied to the fabric and the tightness of the suit structure; in insulating ones - using rubberized fabrics and polymer materials.

Currently, the most widely used filter gas masks are GP-5 (GP-5 M) and GP-7 (GP-7 V). Civilian gas masks GP-5, GP-7 are designed to protect a person from contact with the respiratory system, eyes and face of radioactive, poisonous, highly toxic substances and bacterial agents. The GP-7 gas mask is one of the latest models. Today this gas mask is the most reliable means of respiratory protection. In real conditions, it provides highly effective protection against vapors of nerve agent agents (such as sarin, soman), general toxic agents (cyanchloride, hydrocyanic acid), radioactive substances - up to 6 hours, from drops of agents with blister action (mustard gas) - up to 2 hours at temperature from - 40 to +40° C.

The GP-7 gas mask, compared to the GP-5, has reduced the resistance of the filter-absorbing box, which makes breathing easier, and the pressure of the front part on the head is reduced, which allows you to increase the time spent in the gas mask. Thanks to this, it can be used by people over 60 years of age, as well as patients with pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases. The presence of an intercom device (membrane) in the gas mask ensures a clear understanding of the transmitted speech and knowledge.

164 Ch. 8. Eco-bioprotective personal protective equipment technicians

It greatly facilitates the use of communication means (telephone, radio).

The GP-7V gas mask differs from the GP-7 in that the front part has a device for receiving water, which allows you to quench your thirst without removing the gas mask.

The difference between the GP-7 VM gas mask and the GP-7 gas mask is that its front part has a spectacle assembly in the form of trapezoidal curved glasses, which makes it possible to work with optical instruments.

A lightweight means of protecting the respiratory system from harmful gases, vapors, aerosols and dust are respirators. They are divided into two types: the first is respirators, in which the half mask and filter element simultaneously serve as the front part; the second one purifies the inhaled air in filter cartridges attached to the half mask.

According to their intended purpose, respirators are divided into anti-dust, anti-gas and gas-dust protective. Anti-dust protects the respiratory system from aerosols various types, gas protection - from harmful vapors and gases, and gas and dust protection - from gases, vapors and aerosols with their simultaneous presence in the air.

Skin protection products are intended to protect people from exposure to toxic substances, chemical agents, radioactive substances and bacterial agents. They are made in the form of jackets with hoods, bib overalls and overalls.

To protect against ESD in the accident zone, mainly insulating type protective equipment is used. These include: insulating chemical kit KIKH-4 (KIKH-5); general-arms protective kit; light protective suit L-1. A set of protective filter clothing consists of cotton overalls impregnated with an aqueous solution of a special paste that retains vapors of toxic substances (adsorption type) or neutralizes them (chemisorption type), as well as men's underwear, a cotton balaclava and two pairs of foot wraps (one of which is impregnated with the same composition, the same as the overalls).

Medical personal protective equipment are important in the system of measures to protect the population from damaging factors of man-made disasters, natural disasters and infectious diseases. These include:

8.2.Personal protective equipment

radioprotective agents, antidotes, antibacterial drugs, partial treatment agents. All of them are intended to prevent the disease and provide first aid to the population. The most important of them are contained in an individual first aid kit (AI-2), issued to the population with a declaration of the danger of an emergency situation. It comes in a plastic case orange, which contains pencil cases with medicines and a syringe tube with an antidote. The drugs are placed as follows:

Slot 1 is intended for a syringe-tube with anti-inflammatory
left remedy used for fractures, extensive
injuries and burns;

Slot 2 holds a red pencil case with 6 TARE tablets
NA - for the prevention of FOV lesions (one-time dose -
2 tablets, re-take - 1 tablet after 6-8 hours);

Slot 3 contains antibacterial agent No. 2 SUL-
FADIMETOXINE (15 tablets) to eliminate stomach
ny disorders arising after irradiation. In the lane
On the first day 7 tablets are taken, on the next two
day - 4 tablets;

In slot 4 there is radioprotective agent No. 1 CYSTA-
MIN (two pencil cases of 6 tablets each). Used when there is a threat
irradiation: in one dose - 6 tablets; with a new threat
irradiation, 6 more tablets are taken, but not earlier than
4-5 hours after the first dose;

Socket 5 contains antibacterial agent No. 1
TETRACELINE (two pencil cases of 5 tablets each). Applicable
in case of threat or occurrence of infection, wounds and burns
gah: first 5 tablets, washed down with water, and after 6 hours -
5 more tablets;

Socket 6 holds radioactive agent No. 2 - 10 tablets
current of POTASSIUM IODIDE, which is taken one at a time
tablet within 10 days after the radioactive fallout
low precipitation;

Socket 7 contains the antiemetic agent ETAPERA-
ZIN (5 tablets). Use 1 tablet after irradiation
pain or when nausea occurs due to a head injury.

Individual anti-chemical package (IPP-8, IPP-10) used for sanitizing open areas

166 Ch. 8. Eco-bioprotective equipment and personal protective equipment

Skin and adjacent areas of clothing by disinfecting droplet-liquid or mist-like agents and bacterial aerosols that have come into contact with them. The package contains a bottle with a polydegassing liquid capable of neutralizing chemical agents, and 4 cotton gauze wipes enclosed in a sealed bag. The effectiveness of sanitary treatment is high if the degassing solution is used immediately after drops of chemical agents come into contact with the skin:

For disinfection of individual water supplies, All PANTOCIN tablets containing chloramine. One tablet is designed to disinfect 1 liter of water. Water is suitable for drinking 45 minutes after the tablet is completely dissolved in it.

Peacetime and wartime emergencies

9.1. General information and classification of emergency situations

Natural disasters, accidents and catastrophes are very common occurrences in our country. Every year in one region or another there are severe river floods, dam and dam breaks, earthquakes, storms and hurricanes, forest and peat fires.

Each of these phenomena has its own characteristics, the nature of the damage, the volume and scale of destruction, the magnitude of disasters and human losses. Each of them leaves its mark on the environment.

Knowledge of the causes and nature of natural disasters allows, with early adoption of protective measures and reasonable behavior of the population, to significantly reduce all types of losses.

Timely information makes it possible to carry out preventive work, prepare forces and means, and explain to people the rules of behavior.

The entire population must be prepared to act in extreme situations, to participate in the elimination of natural disasters, accidents and catastrophes, and be able to master the methods of providing first aid to victims.

What are natural disasters? What are their features? What are the rules of behavior and actions of people in emergency situations?

"Emergency- this is a situation in a certain territory that has arisen as a result of an accident, a dangerous natural phenomenon, a catastrophe, a natural or other disaster that may result or has resulted in human casualties, damage to human health or the environment, significant material losses and disruptions to people’s living conditions.” (Article 1 of the Federal Law of the Russian Federation “On the Protection of

168

Shield the population and territories from natural and man-made emergencies").

The sources of emergency situations can be natural disasters, accidents, widespread infectious diseases of people, animals and plants, as well as modern means of destruction, as a result of which an emergency situation has occurred or may arise.

In the regulatory documents of the Unified State System for the Prevention and Elimination of Emergency Situations, the following groups of emergencies are distinguished:

I - natural;

II - biological-social;

III - man-made;

IV - environmental.

In accordance with the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 1094 of September 13, 1996, depending on the scale of distribution and severity of the consequences, all emergency situations are divided into local, local, territorial, regional, federal and transboundary.

Local- this is an emergency as a result of which no more than 10 people were injured, or the living conditions of no more than 100 people were disrupted, or material damage amounted to no more than 1 thousand. minimum wage (minimum wage) on the day of the emergency and its zone does not extend beyond the territory of the industrial or social facility.

Local- this is an emergency, as a result of which more than 10, but not more than 50 people were injured; or the living conditions of more than 100, but not more than 300 people are disrupted; or the material damage is more than 1 thousand, but not more than 5 thousand minimum wages on the day of the emergency and the emergency zone does not extend beyond the boundaries of the populated area, city, district.

Territorial - this is an emergency that resulted in more than 50 but not more than 500 casualties; or the living conditions of more than 300, but more than 500 people are disrupted; or material damage is over 5 thousand, but not more than 0.5 million minimum wages on the day of the emergency and the emergency zone does not extend beyond the boundaries of the subject Russian Federation.

169

Regional- this is an emergency, as a result of which more than 50, but not more than 500 people were injured; or the living conditions of more than 500, but not more than 1000 people are disrupted; or the material damage is more than 0.5 million, but not more than 5 million minimum wages on the day of the emergency and the emergency zone covers the territory of two constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

Federal - this is an emergency, as a result of which more than 500 people were injured, or the living conditions of more than 1,000 people were disrupted, or material damage amounted to more than 5 million minimum wages on the day the emergency occurred and the emergency zone extends beyond the boundaries of more than two constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

Cross-border- this is an emergency situation, the damaging factors of which extend beyond the borders of the Russian Federation, or an emergency situation occurred abroad, but affects the territory of the Russian Federation.

In the media, the same events associated with emergency situations are called accidents or disasters.

What is the difference between them? Accident- this is damage to a machine, machine tool, installation, production line, energy supply system, equipment, vehicle, building, structure. These incidents are not so significant without loss of life.

Catastrophe- this is an event with tragic consequences, for example a major accident with loss of life and significant property damage.

Natural disasters - This dangerous phenomena or processes of geophysical, geological, hydrological, atmospheric and other origin, the scale of which is caused by catastrophic situations characterized by a sudden disruption of the life of the population, destruction and destruction of material assets, defeat and death of people.

Natural disasters as phenomena often lead to accidents and disasters in industry, transport, utilities and other areas of human activity.

Ecological catastrophy- natural disaster, major industrial or transport accident (catastrophe),

170 Ch. 9. Peacetime and wartime emergencies

Which led to extremely unfavorable changes in the environment and, as a rule, to massive death of living organisms and significant economic damage.

/. Natural emergencies. Based on the causes (conditions) of their occurrence, they are divided into the following groups: geological, meteorological, hydrological, and natural fires.

1. Natural disasters of a geological nature are divided into disasters caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, mudflows, avalanches, landslides, subsidence of the earth's surface as a result of karst phenomena.

Earthquakes - These are underground impacts (shocks) and vibrations of the earth's surface caused by natural processes occurring in the earth's crust. The size of an earthquake source usually ranges from several tens of meters to hundreds of kilometers. In this case, the integrity of the soil is often violated, buildings and structures are destroyed, water supply, sewerage, communication lines, electricity and gas supplies fail, and there are casualties. This is one of the most terrible natural disasters. According to UNESCO, earthquakes rank first in terms of economic damage caused and the number of human casualties.

Earthquakes occur unexpectedly, and although the duration of the main shock does not exceed a few seconds, its consequences are tragic. In Russia, approximately 28% of areas are seismically hazardous. Areas of possible 9-magnitude earthquakes are located in the Baikal region, Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands, and 8-magnitude earthquakes in Southern Siberia and the North Caucasus.

Volcanic activity arises as a result of constant active processes occurring in the depths of the Earth, the interior of which is constantly in a heated state. At depths of 10 to 30 km, molten rock, or magma, accumulates. During tectonic processes, cracks form in the earth's crust and magma rushes to the surface. This process is accompanied by the release of water vapor and gases, which create enormous pressure, eliminating obstacles in its path. When reaching the surface of the Earth, part of the magma turns into slag, and the other flows out in the form of lava. From the vapors and gases released into the atmosphere to

9.1. General information and classification of emergency situations

Particles of volcanic rock called tephra settle on the ground.

Volcanic slag, pumice, ash, and rocks pile up to form a predominantly cone-shaped mountain, which is called a volcano. At the top of the volcano there is a crater shaped like a funnel connected by a channel to a source of magma.

According to the degree of activity, volcanoes are classified into active, dormant and extinct. Active ones include those that erupted in historical times, in contrast to extinct ones, which did not erupt. Dormant volcanoes manifest themselves periodically, but do not erupt.

In Russia, near Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, there is an active Avacha volcano. Near it there are extinct volcanoes - Koryakskaya and Kozelskaya hills. There are 39 active volcanoes on the Kuril Islands, and 26 on Kamchatka. To the east of the Mediterranean Sea, the extinct volcanoes of Asia Minor and the Caucasus Range - Ararat, Kazbek and Elbrus - are scattered in a wide strip.

Landslides is a sliding displacement of earth masses under the influence of its own weight. Most often they occur along the banks of rivers and reservoirs, on mountain slopes. The main reason for their occurrence is excessive saturation of clayey rocks with groundwater. Landslides occur at any time of the year, but mostly in the spring and summer.

Landslides cause significant damage to the national economy; they threaten the movement of trains, road transport, residential buildings and other buildings. When landslides occur, the process of land removal from agricultural use is intensive. They often lead to human casualties.

Sel(mudflow, from Arabic sayl "stormy flow") - a stormy mud or mud-stone flow, consisting of a mixture of water and rock fragments, suddenly appearing in the basins of small mountain rivers. The reason for its occurrence is intense and prolonged downpours, rapid melting of snow or glaciers, breakthrough of reservoirs, and, less often, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Unlike ordinary flows, mudflows, as a rule, move in separate waves rather than in a continuous flow. One-

Ch. 9. Peacetime and wartime emergencies

.1. General information and classification of emergency situations173

A huge amount of viscous magma is temporarily brought to the surface. The steep leading front of a mudflow wave with a height of 5 to 15 m forms the “head” of a mudflow. The maximum height of the water-mud flow shaft sometimes reaches 25 m. The mudflow passes through obstacles that are encountered in its path, continuing to increase its energy.

All this lasts a very short time - 1-3 hours: The time from the beginning of a mudflow in the mountains to the moment it reaches the plain is 20-30 minutes. But, having a large mass and high speed of movement (up to 15 km/h), mudflows destroy buildings, roads, hydraulic engineering and other structures, disable communication lines, power transmission lines, and lead to the death of people and animals.

In Russia, up to 20% of the territory is located in mudflow zones. Mudflows are especially active in Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia, Dagestan, in the Novorossiysk region, Sayano-Baikal region, in the area of the Baikal-Amur Mainline, in Kamchatka, within the Stanovoy and Verkhoyansk ranges. They also occur in some areas of Primorye, the Kola Peninsula and the Urals.

Snow avalanches- snow masses falling from mountain slopes under the influence of gravity.

Snow accumulating on mountain slopes, under the influence of gravity and weakening of structural bonds within the snow column, slides or crumbles from the slope. Having started its movement, it quickly picks up speed, capturing more and more snow masses, stones and other objects along the way. The movement continues until the avalanche reaches flatter areas or the valley floor, where it slows down and stops.

Snow avalanches very often threaten populated areas, sports and health resort complexes, railways and roads, power lines, mining facilities and other economic structures. The destructive power of avalanches varies. Thus, an avalanche already at 10 m 3 poses a danger to humans and light equipment; large ones are capable of destroying capital engineering structures and forming difficult or insurmountable blockages on transport routes.

In Russia, such natural disasters most often occur in the Kola Peninsula, the Urals, the North Caucasus, the south of Western and Eastern Siberia, and the Far East.

In the vast majority of mountainous regions, avalanches occur annually, and sometimes several times a year.

2. Natural disasters of a meteorological nature under
are divided into disasters caused by:

Wind, including storm, hurricane, tornado (at high
growth 25 m/s or more, for the Arctic and Far Eastern seas - 30 m/s or more);

Heavy rain (with precipitation of 50 mm or more in 12 hours or less, and in mountainous, mudslide and storm-prone areas - 30 mm or more in 12 hours or less);

Large hail (with a hailstone diameter of 20 mm or more);

Heavy snowfall (with a precipitation amount of 20 mm and
more than 12 hours or less);

Heavy snowstorms (wind speed 15 m/s or more);

Dust storms;

Frosts (when the air temperature drops in the veg
tation period on the soil surface below 0°C);

Severe frost or extreme heat.

3. Natural disasters of a hydrological nature subdivision
are divided into disasters caused by:

High water levels - floods, during which
flooding of low-lying parts of cities and other
settlements, agricultural crops,
damage to industrial and transport facilities;

Low water levels, when navigation is disrupted,
supplying cities and national economic facilities,
irrigation systems;

Early freeze-up and appearance of ice on navigable waters
emah;

Tsunami - strong disturbances in the seas and oceans.

Floods- is the flooding of water adjacent to a river, lake or reservoir, which causes material damage, harm to human health or leads to their death. If flooding is not accompanied by damage, it is a flood of a river, lake, or reservoir.

Floods, to a greater or lesser extent, are periodically observed on most rivers in Russia. In terms of frequency, area of distribution and total average annual material damage, they occupy first place in

Ch. 9. Peacetime and wartime emergencies

9.1. General information and classification of emergency situations175

A number of natural disasters, in terms of the number of human casualties and material damage, are second only to earthquakes. It is not possible to completely prevent them either in the present or in the near future. Floods can only be mitigated or contained.

Although all regions of Russia are different in terms of meteorological conditions, floods occur almost every year in one area or another. The damage is enormous. The area that can be flooded by flood waters is about 500 thousand km 2, but from 36 to 56 thousand km 2 are actually flooded annually.

The greatest negative impact of floods is in the basins of the Amur, Ussuri, Iman, Zeya, Bureya rivers, Siberian rivers flowing into the northern seas, and the rivers of the North Caucasus.

Depending on the causes of occurrence, floods are divided into four groups, namely floods:

a) associated with maximum runoff from spring snow melt;
are distinguished by significant and rather long-lasting
the current water level in the river and are called flood;

b) formed by intense rains; characterized by
intense, relatively short-term rises
water level and are called floods;

c) caused mainly by high resistance, which
water flow meets in the river; occur mostly
at the beginning and end of winter during ice jams and jams;

d) water created by wind surges on large lakes
and reservoirs, as well as in sea estuaries.

Within Russia, floods of the first two groups mainly predominate.

Based on the size and scale of losses, floods are also divided into four groups:

a) low (small); usually observed on plains
rivers and have a frequency of occurrence approximately once every
5-10 years. Less than 10% of farmland is flooded,
located in low-lying areas. Apply minor
material damage and almost do not disrupt the rhythm of life on
villages;

b) high; accompanied by significant flooding,
sometimes it is necessary to evacuate the population; cover compare
very large areas of terrain, significantly disturbed

They have economic activities and an established rhythm of life. Cause significant material and moral damage. Occurs once every 20-25 years;

c) outstanding; cover entire river basins. Couple
lize economic activity, apply a large coating
material and moral damage. Very often it is necessary
resort to mass evacuation of population and material
ny values. Repeat approximately once every 50
100 years;

d) catastrophic; cause flooding of huge territories
territory within one or more river systems.
Economic activity is completely paralyzed. Sharp
The lifestyle of the population is changing. Material
the damage is enormous. Cases of death have been observed. About
occur once every 100-200 years or less.

The main characteristics of the consequences of floods include:

The population in the zone is susceptible to
Noah flood;

Number of settlements affected by the flood zone
opinions;

Number of enterprises, length of roads
And railways, power lines, communications and communications
communications caught in the flood zone;

Number of dead animals, destroyed bridges and tunnels.

A distinction is made between direct and indirect damage from floods.

Direct is, for example, damage and destruction of residential and industrial buildings, railways and roads, power and communication lines, loss of livestock and crops, destruction and spoilage of raw materials, fuel, food, feed, costs of temporary evacuation of the population and material resources.

Indirect damage usually includes: costs of purchasing and delivering food to affected areas, building materials and feed for livestock, reduction in production, deterioration of living conditions of the population.

Direct and indirect damage are mostly in the ratio of 70%: 30%.

Tsunami- these are long waves resulting from underwater earthquakes, as well as volcanic eruptions

176Ch. 9. Peacetime and wartime emergencies
9.1. General information and classification of emergency situations177

Sink or landslides on the seabed. Their source is at the bottom of the ocean. In 90% of cases, tsunamis are caused by underwater earthquakes.

Once formed in any place, a tsunami can travel several thousand kilometers without diminishing. This is due to the long periods of waves (from 150 to 300 km). In the open sea, ships may not detect these waves, although they move at high speed (from 100 to 1000 km/h). The height of the waves is small, however, having reached shallow water, the wave slows down sharply, its front rises and falls with terrible force onto the land. In this case, the height of large waves near the coast reaches 5-20 m, and sometimes reaches 40 m.

The tsunami wave may not be the only one. Very often this is a series of waves at intervals of about an hour. The highest of them is called the main one.

4. The concept of natural fires includes: forest fires, fires of steppe and grain massifs, peat and underground fires of fossil fuels.

Forest fires- These are uncontrolled burnings of vegetation that spontaneously spread throughout the forest area, which, in dry weather and wind, cover significant areas.

In 90-97 cases out of 100, the culprits of a disaster are people who do not show due caution when using fire in places of work and leisure. The share of fires caused by lightning is no more than 2% of their total number.

Depending on the nature of the fire and the composition of the forest, fires are divided into ground fires, crown fires, and soil fires. Almost all of them at the beginning of their development have a grassroots character and, if certain conditions are created, they turn into upland or soil ones.

In case of ground fire, and there are up to 90% of the total, the fire spreads only along the soil cover, covering the lower parts of trees, grass and protruding roots.

In case of a running fire that starts only when strong wind, the fire usually moves along the treetops in “jumps.” The wind carries sparks, burning branches and pine needles, which create new fires several tens or even hundreds of meters away. The flame moves at a speed of 15-20 km/h.

The consequence of ground or crown fires is underground fires. After the burning of the upper ground cover, the fire deepens into the peaty horizon. Underground fires are usually called peat fires.

Large forest fires rage during emergency fire danger in the forest, especially during prolonged and severe drought. Their development is favored by windy weather and cluttered forests.

The average duration of large forest fires ranges from 10 to 15 days, the burned area averages 40-500 hectares with a perimeter of 8 to 16 km.

Areas affected by wildfires are usually declared a "disaster zone."

Natural disasters often cause mass diseases of people, animals, plants and lead to biological and social emergencies.

//. Biological and social emergencies- this is a condition in which, as a result of the occurrence of a source of biological and social emergency in a certain territory, the normal conditions life and activity of people, the existence of farm animals and the growth of plants, there is a threat to the life and health of people, the widespread spread of infectious diseases, losses of farm animals and plants.

Infectious diseases of people - These are diseases caused by pathogens and transmitted from an infected person or animal to a healthy one.

Epidemic process is the phenomenon of the occurrence and spread of infectious diseases among people, representing a continuous chain of sequentially occurring homogeneous diseases. To characterize the intensity of the spread of a disease, concepts such as epidemic outbreak, epidemic and pandemic are used.

Epidemic outbreak is a sharp increase in morbidity limited in time and area associated with the simultaneous infection of people.

Epidemic- widespread spread of an infectious disease, significantly exceeding the incidence rate usually recorded in a given territory.

Ch. 9. Peacetime and wartime emergencies

9.1. General information and classification of emergency situations179

Pandemic - an unusually wide spread of incidence, both in level and in scope, covering a number of countries, entire continents and even the entire globe.

Particularly dangerous infectious diseases of people include: plague, cholera, yellow fever, AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), diphtheria, influenza, dysentery, hepatitis, tuberculosis, etc.

Infectious animal diseases- a group of diseases that have such common characteristics as the presence of a specific pathogen, cyclical development, the ability to be transmitted from an infected animal to a healthy one and become epizootic.

According to the breadth of distribution, the epizootic process is characterized by three forms: sporadic morbidity, epizootic, panzootic.

Sporadia - these are single or few cases of manifestation of an infectious disease, usually not connected with a single source of infectious agent, the lowest degree of intensity of the epizootic process.

Epizootic - average degree of intensity (tension) of the epizootic process. It is characterized by the widespread spread of infectious diseases in the economy, district, region, and country. It is characterized by mass distribution, a common source of the infectious agent, simultaneity of damage, periodicity and seasonality.

Panzooticia ~ the highest degree of development of the epizootic. It is characterized by an unusually wide spread of an infectious disease, covering one state, several countries, and a continent. Infectious animal diseases that tend to panzootics include foot and mouth disease, rinderpest, swine and poultry plague, brucellosis, rabies in cattle, etc.

Plant disease - This is a disruption of normal metabolism, organ cells and the whole plant under the influence of a phytopathogen or unfavorable environmental conditions, leading to a decrease in plant productivity or to their complete death.

Phytopathogen - the causative agent of plant diseases, secretes biologically active substances that have a detrimental effect on metabolism, affecting the root system and disrupting the supply of nutrients.

To assess the extent of plant diseases, concepts such as “epiphytoty” and “panphytoty” are used.

Epiphytoty - the spread of infectious diseases over large areas over a certain period of time.

Panphytotia - mass diseases covering several countries or continents.

III. Man-made emergencies are very diverse both in the reasons for their occurrence and in scale. According to the nature of the phenomena, they are divided into 6 main groups - these are accidents of:

1) chemically hazardous facilities (CHF);

2) radiation hazardous objects (RHO);

3) fire and explosive objects;

4) hydrodynamically dangerous objects;

5) transport (rail, road, air
nom, water, metro);

6) utility and energy networks.

1. Chemical accident- these are emissions of potent
toxic substances that can occur when damaged
damage and destruction of containers during storage and transportation
or processing of these substances. In addition, some inaccuracies
substances under certain conditions (explosion, fire) in
As a result of a chemical reaction, SDYAV can be formed. IN
In the event of an accident, not only ground-level contamination occurs
layer of the atmosphere, but also water sources, food
niya, soil.

The main damaging factor in accidents at chemical waste facilities is chemical contamination of the ground layer of the atmosphere, leading to injury to people located in the area of action of the explosives. Its scale is characterized by the size of the infection zones. The following zones are distinguished: fatal toxodoses, incapacitating and threshold toxodoses.

2. Radiation accident- an incident leading to
release (release) of radioactive products and ionizing
radiation beyond the project limits (boundaries) in
quantities exceeding established safety standards
ness.

Radiation impact on personnel and the population in the zone of radioactive contamination is characterized by the magnitude of doses of external and internal irradiation of people. Under the outer

Ch. 9. Peacetime and wartime emergencies

9.1. General information and classification of emergency situations181

Direct irradiation of a person from sources of ionizing radiation located outside his body, mainly from sources of y-radiation and neutrons, is eliminated. Internal exposure occurs due to ionizing radiation from sources located inside a person. These sources are formed in critical (most sensitive) organs and tissues. Internal exposure occurs due to sources of a-, p- and y-radiation.

3. Accidents at fire and explosion hazardous facilities, related
with strong explosions and fires, can lead to serious
social and economic consequences. Called
they mainly explode tanks and pipelines with easy
flammable and explosive liquids and gas
mi, short circuit of electrical wiring, explosions and
combustion of certain substances and materials. Fires during
industrial accidents cause destruction of structures due to
combustion or deformation of their elements from high temperatures.

4. In case of accidents at hydrodynamically hazardous objects, To
which include hydraulic structures of pressure
Like, the destruction of dams is dangerous. When dams break
a breakthrough wave begins, the destructive effect of which is
consists mainly in the movement of large masses of water with
high speed and ramming action of everything that moves
placed with water (stones, boards, logs, various
designs).

The height and speed of the breakthrough wave depend on the hydrological and topographic conditions of the river. For example, for flat areas, the speed of a breakthrough wave can reach from 3 to 25 km/h, and in mountainous and foothill areas - 100 km/h. Wooded areas slow down the speed and reduce the wave height.

When dams break, significant areas of the area are usually flooded within 15-30 minutes with a layer of water 0.5 to 10 m thick or more. The time during which the territory can be under water ranges from several hours to several days.

5. Accidents in transport and utilities
networks quite common occurrences in our lives, and, unfortunately
nuyu, their number is increasing from year to year. Any for today
the mode of transport poses a potential danger.

In railway transport, the most common occurrences are derailments of rolling stock, collisions, and collisions with

obstacles at crossings, fires and explosions directly in cars. We cannot exclude the possibility of erosion of railway tracks, collapses, and landslides. When transporting dangerous goods, such as gases, flammable, explosive, toxic and radioactive substances, explosions and fires may occur.

The causes of accidents in railway transport are deterioration of track and carriage facilities, malfunctions of signaling, centralization and blocking equipment, dispatcher errors, inattention and negligence of drivers.

One of the main problems associated with road transport is ensuring traffic safety. About 75% of all road accidents occur due to drivers violating traffic rules, and a third of road accidents are the result of poor driver training. They either do not have the right to drive a vehicle of the corresponding category at all, or, moreover, they buy driver’s licenses. The most dangerous types of violations are still speeding, driving into oncoming traffic, and driving while intoxicated.

In air transport, despite the measures taken, the number of accidents and disasters is not decreasing. Serious consequences are caused by the destruction of individual aircraft structures, engine failure, disruption of control systems, power supply, communications, piloting, lack of fuel or its low quality, interruptions in life support for the crew and passengers.

In water transport, most major accidents and disasters occur under the influence of hurricanes, storms, fog, ice, as well as through the fault of people - captains, pilots and crew members. Half of the accidents on rivers and seas are a consequence of inept operation of transport, improper placement of cargo, poor securing of cargo, etc. All this leads to collisions and capsizes of ships, their grounding, explosions and fires on board.

6. Accidents on utility and energy networks have become a common occurrence in our lives. In 2002-2003 In winter, entire cities froze. Due to aging equipment, corrosion and dilapidation of pipes, and soil deformation, ruptures in water supply, sewer networks and pipelines cause

Ch. 9. Peacetime and wartime emergencies

were a real scourge for workers in housing and communal services.

When planning measures to combat accidents, it must be taken into account that in their development they go through five characteristic stages:

Accumulation of deviations from the normal process;

Initiation of an accident;

Development of an accident during which there is an impact
stare at people natural environment and objects of folk art
farms;

Carrying out rescue and other emergency operations,

Restoration of life after the liquidation of the village
consequences of the accident.

Due to the fact that the number of accidents tends To increase from year to year, emergency services, rescue teams, formations of the Ministry of Emergency Situations and Civil Defense must be ready to carry out tasks to eliminate unforeseen situations.

GU. Environmental emergencies are very diverse and practically cover all aspects of human life and activity. This is due to a wide range of sources of this emergency.

Based on the nature of the phenomena, environmental emergencies are divided into four main groups, which are characterized by changes:

Land conditions (soil degradation, erosion, desertification);

Properties of the air environment (climate warming, lack of
oxygen, harmful substances, acid rain, noise,
ozone layer depletion);

Conditions of the hydrosphere (depletion and pollution of rivers,
seas and oceans);

Conditions of the biosphere (zones of the Earth - including the upper
tosphere and lower atmosphere).

Related information.

Methods for protecting the hydrosphere

Hydrosphere of the earth.

The hydrosphere is an aquatic environment that includes surface and underground waters. Surface water is mainly concentrated in the oceans, which contain about 91% of all water on Earth. The surface of the World Ocean (water area) is 361 million square km. It is approximately 2.04 times more area land – a territory occupying 149 million square km. If water is distributed evenly, it will cover the Earth 3000 meters thick.

The water in the ocean (94%) and underground is salty. The amount of fresh water is 6% of the total water on Earth, with a very small share of only 0.36% available in places that are easily accessible to extraction.

Each inhabitant of the Earth consumes on average 650 cubic meters of water per year (1780 liters per day). However, to satisfy physiological needs, 2.5 liters per day is enough, i.e. about 1 cubic meter per year.

Water is not only a condition for the life of an individual organism. Without it, the existence of the biosphere and life on Earth would not be possible, since the circulation of matter and energy in the biosphere is possible only with the participation of water. During the water cycle, 453,000 cubic meters evaporate from the surface of the World Ocean annually. m. water.

Types of surface and groundwater pollution:

physical – increasing the content of mechanical

impurities, characteristic mainly of surface types

pollution;

chemical – presence of inorganic and organic substances in water

substances of toxic and non-toxic action;

radioactive – presence of radioactive substances in surface or ground waters;

bacterial and biological - presence in water

various pathogenic microorganisms, fungi and

small algae;

Sources of pollution.

Sources of pollution are objects from which harmful substances are discharged or otherwise entered into water bodies, deteriorating the quality of surface waters, limiting their use, and also negatively affecting the condition of the bottom and coastal water bodies.

1) Industrial, agricultural, domestic wastewater

Industrial: In industrialized countries, the main consumer of water and the largest source of wastewater is industry. Water performs various functions, for example, it serves as a raw material, a heater and a cooler in technological processes, in addition, it transports, sorts and washes various materials. Water also removes waste at all stages of production - from the extraction of raw materials, the preparation of semi-finished products to the release of final products and their packaging. Since it is much cheaper to throw away waste from various production cycles than to process and dispose of it, a huge amount of various organic and inorganic substances are discharged with industrial wastewater.

Agricultural: The second main consumer of water is agriculture, which uses it to irrigate fields. The water flowing from them is saturated with salt solutions and soil particles, as well as chemical residues that help increase productivity. These include insecticides; fungicides; herbicides, a famous weed control agent; and other pesticides, as well as organic and inorganic fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other chemical elements.

In addition to chemical compounds, a large volume of feces and other organic residues from farms where meat and dairy cattle, pigs or poultry are raised enter the rivers. A lot of organic waste also comes from the processing of products. Agriculture(when cutting meat carcasses, processing leather, producing food and canned food, etc.).

Domestic wastewater : The most well-known source of water pollution and the one that has traditionally received the most attention is domestic (or municipal) wastewater. Soap, synthetic washing powders, disinfectants, bleaches and other household chemicals are present in dissolved form in wastewater. Paper waste comes from residential buildings, including toilet paper and baby diapers, waste from plant and animal food. Rain and melt water flows from the streets into the sewer system, often with sand or salt used to accelerate the melting of snow and ice on the roadways and sidewalks.

2) Household waste

Liquid and solid household waste enters the seas and oceans through rivers, directly from land, as well as from ships and barges. Some of this pollution settles in the coastal zone, and some, under the influence of sea currents and wind, is dispersed in different directions. Household waste is dangerous because it carries human diseases (mainly of the intestinal group - typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera.

3) Pollution with oil and petroleum products

Oil and petroleum products are the most common pollutants in the World Ocean. By the beginning of the 80s, about 16 million tons of oil entered the ocean annually, which amounted to 0.23% of world production. The greatest oil losses are associated with its transportation from production areas. Discharge of washing and ballast water overboard by tankers in case of tanker accidents and ruptures in pipelines. - all this determines the presence of permanent fields of pollution along the routes of sea routes.

4) Pollution with heavy metal ions

Heavy metal pollution. Disturbs the vital functions of aquatic organisms and humans. Heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, copper, arsenic) are common and highly toxic pollutants. Large masses of these compounds enter the ocean through the atmosphere. Mercury is transported to the ocean by continental runoff and through the atmosphere. Lead is a typical trace element found in all components of the environment: rocks, soils, natural waters, atmosphere, living organisms. Finally, lead is actively dissipated into the environment during economic activity person. These are emissions from industrial and domestic wastewater, from smoke and dust from industrial enterprises, and from exhaust gases from internal combustion engines.

5) Acid rain

Acid rain pollution. Leads to acidification of water bodies and death of ecosystems.

The term "acid rain" refers to all types of meteorological precipitation - rain, snow, hail, fog, sleet - whose pH is less than the average pH of rainwater (the average pH for rainwater is 5.6).

6) Thermal

Thermal pollution causes the discharge of heated water from thermal power plants and nuclear power plants into water bodies, which leads to the massive development of blue-green algae, the so-called water bloom, a decrease in the amount of oxygen and negatively affects the flora and fauna of water bodies.

Consequences of pollution

1. The problem of fresh water, organic pollution of water bodies, deterioration in the quality of drinking water.

2. Death of plants and animals.

3. Uncontrolled algae development.

4. Death of aquatic ecosystems with stagnant water.

5. Waterlogging of the area.

Wastewater treatment methods

Methods of wastewater treatment can be divided into mechanical, chemical, physicochemical and biological; when they are used together, the method of wastewater treatment and neutralization is called combined. The use of one or another method, in each specific case, is determined by the nature of the contamination and the degree of harmfulness of the impurities.

1. Mechanical method

The essence of the mechanical method is that mechanical impurities are removed from wastewater by sedimentation and filtration. Coarse particles, depending on their size, are captured by gratings, sieves, sand traps, septic tanks, and manure traps various designs, and surface pollution - with oil traps, gasoline-oil traps, settling tanks, etc. Mechanical treatment makes it possible to separate up to 60-75% of insoluble impurities from domestic wastewater, and up to 95% from industrial wastewater, many of which, as valuable impurities, are used in production.

2. Chemical method

The chemical method involves adding various chemical reagents to wastewater, which react with pollutants and precipitate them in the form of insoluble sediments. Chemical cleaning achieves a reduction in insoluble impurities up to 95% and soluble impurities up to 25%

3. Physico-chemical method

With the physicochemical method of treatment, finely dispersed and dissolved inorganic impurities are removed from wastewater and organic and poorly oxidized substances are destroyed; coagulation, oxidation, sorption, extraction, etc. are most often used among physicochemical methods. Electrolysis is also widely used. It involves breaking down organic matter in wastewater and extracting metals, acids and other inorganic substances. Electrolytic purification is carried out in special facilities - electrolyzers. Wastewater treatment using electrolysis is effective in lead and copper plants, in paint and varnish and some other areas of industry.

Polluted wastewater is also purified using ultrasound, ozone, ion exchange resins and high pressure, cleaning by chlorination has proven itself well.

4. Biological method

Among wastewater treatment methods, a major role should be played by the biological method, based on the use of the laws of biochemical and physiological self-purification of rivers and other bodies of water. There are several types of biological wastewater treatment devices: biofilters, biological ponds and aeration tanks.

IN biofilters The wastewater is passed through a layer of coarse material coated with a thin bacterial film. Thanks to this film, biological oxidation processes occur intensively. It is this that serves as the active principle in biofilters. In biological ponds, all organisms inhabiting the pond take part in wastewater treatment. Aerotanks are huge tanks made of reinforced concrete. Here the cleansing principle is activated sludge from bacteria and microscopic animals. All these living creatures develop rapidly in aeration tanks, which is facilitated by organic substances in wastewater and excess oxygen entering the structure through the flow of supplied air. The bacteria stick together into flakes and secrete enzymes that mineralize organic contaminants. The sludge with flakes quickly settles, separating from the purified water. Ciliates, flagellates, amoebas, rotifers and other tiny animals, devouring bacteria (not sticking together into flakes) rejuvenate the bacterial mass of sludge.

Before biological treatment, wastewater is subjected to mechanical treatment, and after it, to remove pathogenic bacteria, it is subjected to chemical treatment, chlorination with liquid chlorine or bleach. Other physical and chemical techniques (ultrasound, electrolysis, ozonation, etc.) are also used for disinfection.

The biological method gives great results when treating municipal wastewater. It is also used for cleaning waste from oil refining, pulp and paper industries, and the production of artificial fiber.

Self-purification of reservoirs

Factors of self-purification of water bodies: physical, chemical, biological.

Each body of water is a complex system inhabited by bacteria, higher aquatic plants, various invertebrate animals. Their combined activity ensures the self-purification of water bodies. But this process is complicated due to the disturbance of biological balance, therefore one of the environmental tasks is to support the ability of self-purification of water bodies from impurities.

Among physical Factors of paramount importance are dilution, dissolution and mixing of incoming contaminants. Good mixing and reduced concentrations of suspended particles are ensured by the fast flow of rivers. The self-purification of reservoirs is facilitated by the settling of insoluble sediments to the bottom, as well as the settling of polluted waters. In zones with a temperate climate, the river cleans itself after 200-300 km from the place of pollution, and in the Far North – after 2 thousand km.

Water disinfection occurs under the influence of ultraviolet radiation from the sun. The disinfection effect is achieved by the direct destructive effect of ultraviolet rays on protein colloids and enzymes of the protoplasm of microbial cells, as well as spore organisms and viruses.

From chemical Factors in the self-purification of water bodies include the oxidation of organic and inorganic substances. The self-purification of a reservoir is often assessed in relation to easily oxidized organic matter or by the total content of organic matter.

The sanitary regime of a reservoir is characterized primarily by the amount of oxygen dissolved in it. It should be at least 4 mg per 1 liter of water at any time of the year for reservoirs of the first and second types. The first type includes reservoirs used for water supply to enterprises, the second type includes those used for swimming and sporting events.

TO biological factors for self-purification of a reservoir include algae, mold and yeast.

Representatives of the animal world can also contribute to the self-purification of water bodies from bacteria and viruses. Each mollusk filters more than 30 liters of water per day.

The cleanliness of water bodies is unthinkable without protecting their vegetation. Only on the basis of deep knowledge of the ecological state of each reservoir, effective control over the development of the various living organisms inhabiting it, can positive results be achieved, transparency and high biological productivity of rivers, lakes and reservoirs ensured.

Other factors also adversely affect the self-purification processes of water bodies. Chemical pollution of water bodies with industrial wastes inhibits natural oxidative processes and kills microorganisms. The same applies to the discharge of thermal wastewater by thermal power plants.

A multi-stage process, sometimes extending over a long time, is self-purification of oil. In natural conditions the complex physical processes self-purification of water from oil consists of a number of components: evaporation; settling of lumps, especially those overloaded with sediment and dust; sticking together of lumps suspended in the water column; floating of lumps forming a film with inclusions of water and air; reducing the concentrations of suspended and dissolved oil due to settling, floating and mixing with clean water. The intensity of these processes depends on the properties specific type oil (density, viscosity, coefficient of thermal expansion), the presence of colloids in water, suspended plankton particles, etc., air temperature and solar illumination.

3. Drainless production

The pace of industry development today is so high that the one-time use of fresh water reserves for production needs is an unacceptable luxury.

Therefore, scientists are busy developing new drainless technologies, which will almost completely solve the problem of protecting water bodies from pollution.

With closed technology, the enterprise returns used and purified water back into circulation, and only replenishes losses from external sources.

Protection of surface waters of the Russian Federation

Russian water legislation regulates relations in the field of use and protection of water bodies in order to ensure the rights of citizens to clean water and favorable water environment; maintaining optimal water use conditions; quality of surface and groundwater in accordance with sanitary and environmental requirements; protection of water bodies from pollution, clogging and depletion; conservation of biological diversity of aquatic ecosystems.

According to the Water Code of the Russian Federation, the use of water bodies for drinking and domestic water supply is a priority. For these water supplies, surface and underground water bodies protected from pollution and clogging must be used.

It is prohibited to discharge waste and drainage waters into water bodies:

2. classified as specially protected;

3. located in resort areas, places of recreation for the population;

4. located in spawning and wintering areas of valuable and specially protected fish species, in habitats of valuable species of animals and plants listed in the Red Book.

The procedure for developing and approving standards for maximum permissible harmful impacts on water bodies is established by the government of the Russian Federation.

4. Monitoring of water bodies

On March 14, 1997, the Government of the Russian Federation approved the “Regulations on the introduction of state monitoring of water bodies.”

The Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring monitors the pollution of land surface waters. The Sanitary and Epidemiological Service of the Russian Federation is responsible for the sanitary protection of water bodies. There is a network of sanitary laboratories at enterprises to study the composition of wastewater and the quality of water in reservoirs. The work is carried out using automatic devices. Electrical sensors continuously measure contaminant concentrations to facilitate rapid decision-making in the event of adverse impacts on water supplies.

Conclusion.

The logic of the development of life on Earth determines human activity as the main factor, and the biosphere can exist without humans, but humans cannot exist without the biosphere. A factor in the existence of the biosphere is clean water. Future generations will not forgive us for depriving them of the opportunity to enjoy pristine nature. Preserving the harmony of man and nature is the main task facing the present generation. This requires a change in many previously established ideas about the comparison of human values. It is necessary to develop an “ecological consciousness” in every person, which will determine the choice of technology options, the construction of enterprises and the use of natural resources.

Methods for protecting the hydrosphere

Hydrosphere of the earth.

The hydrosphere is an aquatic environment that includes surface and underground waters. Surface water is mainly concentrated in the oceans, which contain about 91% of all water on Earth. The surface of the World Ocean (water area) is 361 million square km. It is approximately 2.04 times larger than the land area - an area occupying 149 million square km. If water is distributed evenly, it will cover the Earth 3000 meters thick.

Water is not only a condition for the life of an individual organism. Without it, the existence of the biosphere and life on Earth would not be possible, since the circulation of substances and energy in the biosphere is possible only with the participation of water. During the water cycle, 453,000 cubic meters evaporate from the surface of the World Ocean annually. m. water.

Types of surface and groundwater pollution:

physical – increasing the content of mechanical

impurities, characteristic mainly of surface types

pollution;

chemical – presence of inorganic and organic substances in water

substances of toxic and non-toxic action;

radioactive – presence of radioactive substances in surface or ground waters;

bacterial and biological - presence in water

various pathogenic microorganisms, fungi and

small algae;

Sources of pollution.

1) Industrial, agricultural, domestic wastewater

Industrial: In industrialized countries, the main consumer of water and the largest source of wastewater is industry. Water performs various functions, for example, it serves as a raw material, a heater and a cooler in technological processes, in addition, it transports, sorts and washes various materials. Water also removes waste at all stages of production - from the extraction of raw materials, the preparation of semi-finished products to the release of final products and their packaging. Since it is much cheaper to throw away waste from various production cycles than to process and dispose of it, a huge amount of various organic and inorganic substances are discharged with industrial wastewater.

Agricultural: The second main consumer of water is agriculture, which uses it to irrigate fields. The water flowing from them is saturated with salt solutions and soil particles, as well as chemical residues that help increase productivity. These include insecticides; fungicides; herbicides, a famous weed control agent; and other pesticides, as well as organic and inorganic fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other chemical elements.

In addition to chemical compounds, a large volume of feces and other organic residues from farms where meat and dairy cattle, pigs or poultry are raised enter the rivers. A lot of organic waste also comes from the processing of agricultural products (during the cutting of meat carcasses, processing of leather, production of food and canned food, etc.).

Domestic wastewater : The most well-known source of water pollution and the one that has traditionally received the most attention is domestic (or municipal) wastewater. Soap, synthetic washing powders, disinfectants, bleaches and other household chemicals are present in dissolved form in wastewater. Paper waste comes from residential buildings, including toilet paper and baby diapers, waste from plant and animal food. Rain and melt water flows from the streets into the sewer system, often with sand or salt used to accelerate the melting of snow and ice on the roadways and sidewalks.

2) Household waste

3) Pollution with oil and petroleum products

4) Pollution with heavy metal ions

Heavy metal pollution. Disturbs the vital functions of aquatic organisms and humans. Heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, copper, arsenic) are common and highly toxic pollutants. Large masses of these compounds enter the ocean through the atmosphere. Mercury is transported to the ocean by continental runoff and through the atmosphere. Lead is a typical trace element found in all components of the environment: rocks, soils, natural waters, atmosphere, living organisms. Finally, lead is actively dissipated into the environment during human economic activity. These are emissions from industrial and domestic wastewater, from smoke and dust from industrial enterprises, and from exhaust gases from internal combustion engines.

5) Acid rain

Acid rain pollution. Leads to acidification of water bodies and death of ecosystems.

The term "acid rain" refers to all types of meteorological precipitation - rain, snow, hail, fog, sleet - whose pH is less than the average pH of rainwater (the average pH for rainwater is 5.6).

6) Thermal

Consequences of pollution

The problem of fresh water, organic pollution of water bodies, deterioration in the quality of drinking water.

Death of plants and animals.

Uncontrolled algae growth.

Death of aquatic ecosystems with stagnant water.

Waterlogging of the area.

Wastewater treatment methods

1. Mechanical method

The essence of the mechanical method is that mechanical impurities are removed from wastewater by sedimentation and filtration. Coarse particles, depending on their size, are captured by gratings, sieves, sand traps, septic tanks, manure traps of various designs, and surface pollution - by oil traps, gasoline oil traps, settling tanks, etc. Mechanical treatment makes it possible to separate up to 60-75% of insoluble impurities from domestic wastewater, and from industrial wastewater - up to 95%, many of which, as valuable impurities, are used in production.

2. Chemical method

3. Physico-chemical method

Polluted wastewater is also purified using ultrasound, ozone, ion exchange resins and high pressure; purification by chlorination has proven itself.

4. Biological method

The biological method gives great results when treating municipal wastewater. It is also used for cleaning waste from oil refining, pulp and paper industries, and the production of artificial fiber.

Self-purification of reservoirs

Factors of self-purification of water bodies: physical, chemical, biological.

Each body of water is a complex system inhabited by bacteria, higher aquatic plants, and various invertebrate animals. Their combined activity ensures the self-purification of water bodies. But this process is complicated due to the disturbance of biological balance, therefore one of the environmental tasks is to support the ability of self-purification of water bodies from impurities.

TO biological factors for self-purification of a reservoir include algae, mold and yeast.

Representatives of the animal world can also contribute to the self-purification of water bodies from bacteria and viruses. Each mollusk filters more than 30 liters of water per day.

A multi-stage process, sometimes extending over a long time, is self-purification of oil. Under natural conditions, the complex of physical processes of self-purification of water from oil consists of a number of components: evaporation; settling of lumps, especially those overloaded with sediment and dust; sticking together of lumps suspended in the water column; floating of lumps forming a film with inclusions of water and air; reducing the concentrations of suspended and dissolved oil due to settling, floating and mixing with clean water. The intensity of these processes depends on the properties of a particular type of oil (density, viscosity, coefficient of thermal expansion), the presence of colloids, suspended plankton particles, etc. in water, air temperature and solar illumination.

3. Drainless production

The pace of industry development today is so high that the one-time use of fresh water reserves for production needs is an unacceptable luxury.

Therefore, scientists are busy developing new drainless technologies, which will almost completely solve the problem of protecting water bodies from pollution.

With closed technology, the enterprise returns used and purified water back into circulation, and only replenishes losses from external sources.

Protection of surface waters of the Russian Federation

Russian water legislation regulates relations in the field of use and protection of water bodies in order to ensure the rights of citizens to clean water and a favorable aquatic environment; maintaining optimal water use conditions; quality of surface and groundwater in accordance with sanitary and environmental requirements; protection of water bodies from pollution, clogging and depletion; conservation of biological diversity of aquatic ecosystems.

It is prohibited to discharge waste and drainage waters into water bodies:

classified as specially protected;

located in resort areas, places of recreation for the population;

located in spawning and wintering areas of valuable and specially protected fish species, in habitats of valuable species of animals and plants listed in the Red Book.

The procedure for developing and approving standards for maximum permissible harmful impacts on water bodies is established by the government of the Russian Federation.

4. Monitoring of water bodies

On March 14, 1997, the Government of the Russian Federation approved the “Regulations on the introduction of state monitoring of water bodies.”

Conclusion.

The methods and means of protecting the hydrosphere discussed in this section can be used to purify all types of water: drinking, technical, as well as industrial, domestic and surface wastewater. The type of water being purified determines the choice of circuit and specific technological equipment used for purification.

Nevertheless, for the purification of any type of water, as a rule, the first stage of purification is mechanical, the second is physico-chemical and the third is biological. At the same time, at many stages of physico-chemical and biological water treatment, secondary mechanical treatment facilities (as a rule, secondary settling tanks) are used to separate insoluble impurities from water that are formed in the processes of physico-chemical or biological treatment.

Methods and technological equipment for wastewater treatment can be selected by knowing the permissible concentrations of impurities in treated wastewater. It must be borne in mind that the required efficiency and reliability of any treatment device are ensured within a certain range of impurity concentrations and wastewater flow rates. For this purpose, averaging of the concentration of impurities or wastewater flow is used, and in some cases, both indicators simultaneously. To do this, they install at the entrance to the treatment plant averagers, the selection and calculation of which depends on the parameters of time-varying wastewater discharges.

In accordance with the types of processes implemented during cleaning, it is advisable to classify existing methods into mechanical, physico-chemical and biological.

TO mechanical types of cleaning Wastewater removal from suspended solids includes filtering, settling, treatment under centrifugal forces and filtration.

Straining is carried out in gratings and fiber catchers. In vertical or inclined gratings The width of the gaps is usually 15-20 mm. To remove sediment from the inlet surface of the gratings, manual or mechanical cleaning is used. Subsequent treatment of the removed sludge requires additional costs and worsens the sanitary and hygienic conditions in the room. These disadvantages are eliminated by using crusher grates, which capture large suspended substances and crush them to 10 mm or less.

To isolate fibrous substances from wastewater from pulp, paper and textile enterprises, they use fiber catchers, for example, using perforated disks or in the form of moving meshes with a layer of fibrous mass applied to them.

Settlement is based on the free settling (floating) of impurities with a density greater (less) than the density of water, which is implemented in sand traps, settling tanks and grease traps.

Sand traps (Fig. 5.9) are used to purify wastewater from metal and sand particles larger than 0.25 mm. Depending on the direction of movement of wastewater, horizontal sand traps with linear and circular water movement, vertical and aerated ones are used.

Septic tanks (Fig. 5.10) are used to purify wastewater from mechanical particles larger than 0.1 mm, as well as from particles of petroleum products. Depending on the direction of movement of the wastewater flow, horizontal, radial or combined settling tanks are used.

When calculating a sump, the determining factors are its length / and working height N.

Wastewater treatment in the field of centrifugal forces is carried out in open or pressure hydrocyclones and

Rice. 5.9.

1 - inlet pipe; 2 - sand trap body; 3 - sludge collector; 4 - outlet pipe

centrifuges. Open hydrocyclones used to separate large solid impurities from wastewater with a sedimentation rate of more than 0.02 m/s. Such hydrocyclones have high productivity and low pressure losses, not exceeding 0.5 kPa. The efficiency of wastewater treatment from solid particles in hydrocyclones depends on the composition of impurities

Rice. 5.10.

(material, size, shape of particles, etc., as well as the design and geometric characteristics of the hydrocyclone.

An open hydrocyclone (Fig. 5.11) consists of an inlet pipe 1, ring weir 2, pipe 3 for drainage of purified water and sludge drainage pipe 4. There are open hydrocyclones with a bottom outlet of purified water, as well as hydrocyclones with an internal cylindrical partition.

The design of a pressure hydrocyclone is similar to that of a cyclone for purifying gases from solid particles.

In Fig. Figure 5.12 shows a diagram of a pressure hydrocyclone, which provides wastewater purification from both solid particles and oil products. Waste water through an inlet pipeline installed tangentially to the hydrocyclone body 1 enters the hydrocyclone. Due to the

Rice. 5.11.

As the wastewater flows, solid particles are thrown toward the walls of the hydrocyclone and flow into the sludge collector 7, from where they are periodically removed. Wastewater with oil products contained in it moves upward.

Moreover, due to the lower density of oil products, they are concentrated in the core of the swirling flow, which enters the receiving chamber 3, and through pipeline 5, oil products are removed from the hydrocyclone for subsequent disposal. Wastewater, cleared of solid particles and oil products, accumulates in the chamber 2, from where through the pipeline 6 allocated for further cleaning. Pipeline 4 with an adjustable flow area designed to release air concentrated in the core with a swirling flow;! treated wastewater.

Rice. 5.12.

When designing hydrocyclones, their productivity () at the selected dimensions is subject to calculation A.

Filtration is used to purify wastewater from finely dispersed impurities with low concentrations. It is used both at the initial stage of wastewater treatment and after some methods of physico-chemical or biological treatment. To purify wastewater by filtration, mainly two types of filters are used: granular filters, in which the wastewater to be treated is passed through nozzles of unbound porous materials, and microfilters, the filter elements of which are made from bound porous materials (mesh, natural and synthetic fabrics, sintered metal powders, etc.). P.).

To purify large flows of wastewater from fine solid impurities, they use grain filters (Fig. 5.13). Waste water in pipeline 4 enters the housing/filter and passes through the filter media 3 from particles marble chips, shupgisite, etc., located between porous partitions 2 and 5. Waste water purified from solid particles accumulates in a volume limited

Rice. 5.13.

nom porous partition 5, and is removed from the filter through a pipeline 8. As solid particles settle in the filter material, the pressure drop across the filter increases and when the limit value is reached, the inlet pipeline is closed 4 and by pipeline 9 compressed air is supplied. It displaces from the filter layer 3 water and solids into a 6" chute which is then piped 7 are removed from the filter. The advantage of the filter design is the developed filtration surface, as well as simplicity of design and high efficiency.

Currently, filters with filter material made from polyurethane foam particles are widely used to purify wastewater from oil products. Polyurethane foam particles, having a high oil absorption capacity, provide cleaning efficiency of up to 0.97-0.99 at a filtration speed of up to 0.01 m/s. At the same time, the polyurethane foam nozzle is easily regenerated by mechanically squeezing out oil products.

Physico-chemical cleaning methods used to remove dissolved impurities, and in some cases, suspended solids. Many methods of physical and chemical treatment require preliminary deep separation of suspended substances from wastewater, for which the coagulation process is widely used.

Currently, due to the use of circulating water supply systems, the use of physical and chemical methods of wastewater treatment is significantly increasing, the main of which are flotation, extraction, neutralization, sorption, ion exchange and electrochemical treatment, hyperfiltration, evaporation, evaporation, evaporation and crystallization.

Flotation designed to intensify the process of floating of oil products when their particles are enveloped by gas bubbles supplied to wastewater. This process is based on the molecular adhesion of oil particles and bubbles of gas finely dispersed in water. The formation of particle-gas bubble aggregates depends on the intensity of their collision with each other, the chemical interaction of substances contained in water, excess gas pressure in waste water, etc.

Depending on the method of formation of gas bubbles, the following types of flotation are distinguished: pressure, pneumatic, foam, chemical, vibration, biological, electroflotation, etc.

Extraction wastewater is based on the redistribution of wastewater impurities in a mixture of two mutually insoluble liquids (wastewater and extractant). Quantitatively, the intensity of redistribution is estimated by the extraction coefficient K9 = se/si , where se and sv are the concentrations of impurities in the extractant and wastewater at the end of the extraction process. In particular, when treating wastewater from phenol using benzene or butyl acetate as an extractant Ke is 2.4 and 8-12, respectively. To intensify the extraction process, the mixture of wastewater and extractant is mixed in extraction columns filled with packings made of Raschig rings.

Neutralization wastewater is designed to separate acids, alkalis, and metal salts based on acids and alkalis from them. The neutralization process is based on the combination of hydrogen ions and a hydroxyl group into a water molecule, as a result of which the wastewater acquires a pH value of 6.7 (neutral environment). Neutralization of acids and their salts is carried out with alkalis or salts of strong alkalis: caustic soda, caustic potassium, lime, limestone, dolomite, marble, chalk, magnesite, soda, alkali waste, etc. The cheapest and most accessible reagent for neutralizing acidic wastewater is calcium hydroxide (slaked lime). To neutralize wastewater containing alkalis and their salts (wastewater from pulp and paper and textile factories), you can use sulfuric, hydrochloric, nitric, phosphoric and other acids.

In practice, three methods of neutralizing wastewater are used:

Filtration - by filtering wastewater through nozzles of lump or granular materials;

water-reagent - by adding a reagent in the form of a solution or dry substance (lime, soda or slag) to wastewater; the neutralizing solution can also be alkaline wastewater;

Semi-dry - by mixing highly concentrated wastewater (for example, spent galvanic solution) with a dry reagent (lime, slag) with the subsequent formation of a neutral dough-like mass.

Sorption used to purify wastewater from soluble impurities. Any finely dispersed materials (ash, peat, sawdust, slag, clay) are used as sorbents; the most effective sorbent is activated carbon.

Ion exchange purification used for desalting and purifying wastewater from metal ions and other impurities. Cleaning is carried out with ion exchangers - synthetic ion exchange resins made in the form of granules 0.2-2 mm in size. Ion exchangers are made from water-insoluble polymer substances that have a mobile ion (cation or anion) on their surface, which, under certain conditions, enters into an exchange reaction with ions of the same sign contained in wastewater.

There are strong and weakly acidic cation exchangers (in H+ or Na+ form) and strongly and weakly basic anion exchangers (in OH or salt form), as well as mixed action ion exchangers.

Depending on the type and concentration of impurities in wastewater and the required purification efficiency, various schemes of ion exchange plants are used. To purify wastewater from anions of strong acids, a technological scheme of single-stage P-cationization and OH-anionization is used using a strong acid cation exchanger and a weakly basic anion exchanger (Fig. 5.14, A). For deeper purification of wastewater, including the removal of salts, one- or two-stage H-cationization on a strong acid cation exchanger is used, followed by two-stage OH-anionization on a weakly and then a strongly basic anion exchanger (Fig. 5.14, b).

If it is necessary to ensure a pH value of 6.7 and purify wastewater from anions of weak acids, instead of second-stage anion exchange filters, a mixed-action filter is used, loaded with a mixture of a strong acid cation exchanger and a strongly basic anion exchanger.

Electrochemical cleaning, in particular, electrochemical oxidation is carried out by electrolysis and is realized in two ways: oxidation of substances by transfer

Rice. 5.14.

A - one-stage cleaning; b - purification with two-stage anionization; V - purification with intermediate degassing and two-stage anionization; K - cation exchange filter;

A - anion filter; D - decarbonizer; Pb intermediate tank

electrons directly on the surface of the anode or through a carrier substance, as well as as a result of interaction with strong oxidizing agents formed during the electrolysis process.

The presence of a sufficient amount of chloride ions in wastewater causes the appearance in it during electrolysis of active chlorine (C12, HOC1, C120, SY, C103), which is a strong oxidizing agent and is capable of causing deep destruction of many organic substances contained in wastewater.

Electrochemical oxidation is used to purify wastewater from galvanic processes containing simple cyanides (KSY, NaCI) or complex cyanides of zinc, copper, iron and other metals. Electrochemical oxidation is carried out in electrolyzers (usually rectangular) of continuous or batch operation. At the anode, cyanides are oxidized into low-toxic and non-toxic products (cyanates, carbonates, carbon dioxide, nitrogen), and at the cathode, hydrogen ions are discharged with the formation of gaseous hydrogen and the discharge of copper, zinc, cadmium ions formed during the dissociation of complex anions containing CI - groups.

In Fig. 5.15 shown technology system installations for electrochemical oxidation of wastewater. It consists of a collection tank /, tank 2 for preparing concentrated solution No. C1, electrolyzer 3 with a constant voltage source 7. Wastewater purified from cyanides is discharged through a pipeline 4, and if necessary, the gray water is again sent through pipeline 5 to the collection tank 1. To intensify the oxidation process in the electrolyzer 3 via pipeline 6 compressed air is supplied.

Hyperfiltration (reverse osmosis) is realized by separating solutions by filtering them through membranes, the pores of which are about 1 in size, allowing water molecules to pass through, retaining hydrated salt ions or molecules of undissociated compounds. Compared to other purification methods, hyperfiltration requires low energy consumption: purification installations are structurally simple and

Rice. 5.15.

compact, easy to automate; the filtrate has high degree purity and can be used in circulating water supply systems, and concentrated wastewater impurities are easily recycled or destroyed.

For hyperfiltration, cellulose acetate, polyamide and similar polymer membranes with a service life of up to two years are used.

Evaporation is implemented by treating wastewater with steam containing volatile organic substances, which pass into the vapor phase and are removed from the wastewater along with the steam. The evaporation process is carried out in evaporation units (Fig. 5.16), in which, when flowing through an evaporation column with nozzles made of Raschig rings towards the flow of live steam, wastewater is heated to a temperature of 100 °C. In this case, the volatile impurities contained in the wastewater pass into the vapor phase and are distributed between two phases (steam and water) in accordance with the equation

Rice. 5.16.

1 - 2 - heat exchanger; 3 - evaporation column; 4 - contaminated steam pipeline; 5 - solvent supply pipeline; 6 - a column with nozzles from Raschig elbows for cleaning waste steam; 7 - fan; 8 - pipeline for reused purified steam; 9 - drainage pipeline for solvent contaminated with volatile impurities; 10 - purified waste water discharge pipeline; 11 - fresh steam supply line

neniya c"/c" = y, where cn and cv are the concentrations of impurities in sewage and wastewater, kg/m3; y is the distribution coefficient. For ammonia, ethylamine, diethylamine, aniline and phenol contained in wastewater, the distribution coefficient is 13, 20, 43, respectively; 5.5 and 2.

Evaporation, evaporation and crystallization are used to treat small volumes of wastewater with high volatile content.

Biological treatment used to isolate finely dispersed and dissolved organic substances. It is based on the ability of microorganisms to use organic substances contained in wastewater (acids, alcohols, proteins, carbohydrates, etc.) for nutrition. The process is implemented in two stages, occurring simultaneously, but at different speeds: adsorption of finely dispersed and dissolved impurities of organic substances from wastewater and destruction of adsorbed substances inside the cell of microorganisms during biochemical processes occurring in them (oxidation or reduction). Both stages are realized both in aerobic and anaerobic conditions, depending on the types and properties of microorganisms. Biological treatment is carried out under natural and artificial conditions.

Under natural conditions, wastewater is purified in filtration fields, irrigation fields and biological ponds. Treatment of both domestic and industrial wastewater on filtration fields and irrigation fields is currently used very rarely due to the low throughput per unit area of the fields and the variability of the composition of industrial wastewater, as well as due to the possibility of impurities toxic to their microflora getting into the fields .

Biological ponds are used for purification and post-treatment of wastewater with a daily flow rate of no more than 6000 m3. Ponds with natural and artificial aeration are used.

Biological filters are widely used for the purification of both domestic and industrial wastewater. Slag, crushed stone, expanded clay, plastic, gravel, etc. are used as filter material for loading biofilters. There are biofilters with natural air supply; they are used for wastewater treatment with a daily flow rate of no more than 1000 m3. To purify high-flow and highly concentrated industrial wastewater, biofilters with forced air supply are used (Fig. 5.17).

The normal course of the biological wastewater treatment process is established after the formation of a biological film on the biofilter loading material, the microorganisms of which have adapted to the organic impurities of the wastewater. The adaptation period is usually 2-4 weeks, although in some cases it can reach several months. To assess the composition of wastewater in the process of biological treatment, the biological oxygen demand of water (BOD) is used - the amount of oxygen required to oxidize all organic impurities contained in a unit volume of wastewater.

Aerotanks, used to treat large flows of wastewater, make it possible to effectively regulate the speed and completeness of the biochemical processes occurring in them, which is especially important for the treatment of industrial wastewater of unstable composition. Oxidative power of aeration tanks

Rice. 5.17.

1 - raw waste water supply pipeline; 2 - water distribution devices; purified waste water discharge pipeline; 5 - hydraulic valve; 6 - compressed air supply pipeline; 7 - filter housing

is 0.5-1.5 kg/m3 per day. Depending on the composition of wastewater impurities and the required treatment efficiency, aeration tanks with differentiated air supply, aeration tanks-mixers with differentiated wastewater supply and aeration tanks with activated sludge regenerators are used.

For WIC > 0.5 kg/m3, aeration tanks are used with a differentiated (concentrated) supply of a mixture of wastewater and activated sludge at the beginning of the construction (Fig. 5.18).

Air, which intensifies the process of oxidation of organic impurities, is distributed evenly along the entire length of the aeration tank. Air dispersion in the wastewater being treated is carried out using mechanical or pneumatic aerators. The oxidative power of aeration tanks significantly depends on the concentration of activated sludge in wastewater. When treating industrial wastewater, the sludge concentration is usually 2-3 kg/m3 of dry matter.

Oxytanks provide a more intense process of oxidation of organic impurities compared to aeration tanks by supplying them with technical oxygen and increasing the concentration of activated sludge. To increase the utilization rate of oxygen supplied to the wastewater volume, the oxygen tank reactor is sealed. Wastewater purified from organic impurities from the reactor enters

Rice. 5.18.

1 - waste water supply pipeline; 2 - primary settling tank; 3 - activated sludge supply or reuse pipeline; 4 - aeration tank; 5 - waste sludge discharge pipeline; 6 - purified waste water discharge pipeline; 7 - secondary settling tank; 8 - compressed air supply line

a sludge separator in which waste sludge is separated from it.

When designing oxygen tanks, it is necessary to take measures to ensure their fire and explosion safety, taking into account the harmful and dangerous factors that occur during the operation of systems using gaseous oxygen.

Surface water protect against clogging, contamination and exhaustion. To protect against clogging, prevent various solid waste and other objects from entering surface water bodies and rivers. To protect against depletion, the minimum permissible water flows are controlled. To protect against contamination, the following measures are taken:

? development of waste-free and water-free technologies and recycling water supply;
? wastewater treatment (industrial, municipal, etc.);
? injection of wastewater into deep aquifers (underground disposal);
? purification and disinfection of surface water used for water supply and other purposes.

Waste-free and water-free technologies and recycling water supply.

The main pollutant of surface waters is wastewater. The most effective way to protect surface waters from wastewater pollution is waterless and waste-free technologies. At the initial stage it is created recycling water supply. Its system includes a number of treatment facilities and installations, which creates a closed cycle of wastewater use, which with this method is constantly in circulation and does not end up in surface water bodies.

Cleaning of drains- there are various methods of wastewater treatment: mechanical, physical-chemical, chemical, biological and thermal. Depending on the type of wastewater, its purification can be carried out using one or a combination of methods, including treatment of sludge (or excess biomass) and disinfection of wastewater before discharging it into a reservoir.

Mechanical cleaning based on straining, settling and filtering. At the same time, insoluble mechanical impurities are removed from wastewater: sand, clay particles, scale, etc. Physico-chemical cleaning involves coagulation, sorption, flotation, extraction and other methods. Fine suspended particles, minerals and organic substances are removed from wastewater. Chemical cleaning based on the processes of neutralization, oxidation, ozonation, chlorination. Wastewater is purified from toxic substances and microorganisms. Biological (biochemical) cleaning is based on the ability of microorganisms to use many organic and inorganic compounds from wastewater (hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, nitrites, etc.) for their nutrition. TO thermal methods are used for the treatment of industrial wastewater containing mainly highly toxic organic components that are destroyed at high temperatures.

All wastewater treatment methods require treatment and disposal of the resulting sludge and sediment (especially when treating toxic industrial wastewater). For this purpose, they are stored in special landfills, processed in biological structures, processed using plants (hyacinths, reeds, etc.) or burned in special ovens.

Injection of wastewater into deep aquifers (underground disposal) carried out through a system of absorption wells. With this method, there is no need for expensive treatment and disposal of wastewater and the construction of treatment facilities.

Agroforestry and hydraulic engineering measures protect surface waters from pollution and clogging. They prevent eutrophication of lakes, reservoirs and small rivers, erosion, landslides, bank collapse, and reduce polluted surface runoff.

Water protection zones protect surface waters from pollution, clogging and depletion. They are created on all water bodies. Their width on rivers ranges from 0.1 to 1.5-2.0 km, including the river floodplain, terraces and coastal slope. Within these zones, plowing of land, grazing of livestock, use of pesticides and fertilizers, construction work, etc. are prohibited.

The groundwater protect from pollution and depletion. To protect against exhaustion use:

? regulation of groundwater intake regime;
? rational placement of water intakes by area;
? determining the amount of operational reserves as the limit of their rational use;
? introduction of a crane mode for the operation of self-flowing artesian wells, etc.

To protect groundwater from pollution, two groups of measures are used: preventive and special.

Preventive actions aimed at preventing pollution. They provide a device sanitary protection zones(ZSO) - areas around sources of centralized drinking water supply, created to eliminate the possibility of groundwater pollution.

Special Events aimed at localizing or eliminating the source of pollution. They provide for the isolation of sources of pollution from the rest of the aquifer (curtains, impervious walls), as well as for the interception of contaminated groundwater using drainage. To eliminate local sources of pollution, long-term pumping of contaminated groundwater is carried out.

The fundamentals of water legislation prohibit the design, construction and commissioning of enterprises that are not equipped with water treatment devices. Discharge of waste water is permitted only with the permission of water quality control authorities.